Parathyroid Glands and Calcitonin

(Calcium & phosphate regulation)

1
 Calcium Homeostasis
• Normal plasma Ca2+ = 9.4 mg/dl
• Importance of Ca2+ in the body
 Muscle contraction, Blood clotting
 Bone and teeth formation
 As a cofactor of enzyme activation
 Synaptic transmission
• Hormones involved in calcium homeostasis: PTH,
GH, Calcitriol, Calcitonin etc.

2
Phosphorus Homeostasis
• Found in ATP, cAMP, 2,3-diphosphoglycerate

• Phosphorylation and dephosphorylation of proteins are

involved in the regulation of cell function
• Phosphate metabolism is closely regulated

 85–90% of which is in the skeleton

 85–90% of the filtered Pi is reabsorbed

3
 Parathyroid Glands
• There are two major types of cells that make up
parathyroid tissue:
• Histology: 2 cells

1. Chief (principal) cells

 Secrete PTH (parathormone)

2. Oxyphil cell
 Unknown function
4
 Parathyroid Glands

• Function

 Increases plasma calcium level

• Target tissues(three)

 Bone

 Kidney

 Gut

5
 Parathroid Hormone...
Effect of PTH on Bone
• Stimulates osteoclasts (bone resorption)

 Digest bone matrix & releases Ca++ and

phosphate to blood
• Stimulates formation of new osteoclasts

• Transiently depresses osteoblasts (bone

formation)
6 The net effect is ↑[Ca2+] in blood
 Parathroid Hormone

Effect of PTH on GIT

 ↑Ca2+ absorption in intestine via vitamin D

Effect of PTH on renal tubules

 ↑Reabsorption of Ca2+ and phosphate in distal
tubules & collecting duct

 ↑1, 25 (OH) 2 D3 formation at proximal cells

7
 Regulation of PTH secretion

• Regulation of PTH secretion:

• ↓↓ [Ca2+] = ↑PTH secretion
• ↑↑[Ca2+] = ↓PTH secretion
 Calcitriol

 inhibits PTH secretion directly or by

stimulating CaSR gene expression

8
 Parathyroid disorders
• Hyperparathyroidism: Rare
 Calcium is leached from bones & replaced by
connective tissue
 Elevated blood Ca2+ adversely affects NS &
contributes to formation of kidney stones as
excess Ca2+ is deposited in kidney tubules
• Hypoparathyroidism: PTH deficiency following injury or
surgical removal
 Increased NS excitability

9
 7-Dehydrocholestrol
Sun light
3- Cholecalciferol (Vit-D3)
Liver enzyme 25-α Hydroxylase
25-Hydroxycholecalciferol
Kidneys proximal 1 α-Hydroxylase
tubules Stimulated by PTH
1, 25-(OH)2 D3(vitamin D3)
↑ Synthesis of Ca-binding proteins
↑Ca absorption in GIT
10
↑Ca reabsorption in renal tubules
11
Vitamin D

• Role of 1, 25 (OH)2 D3

 ↑Release of Ca from bone

 ↑Absorption of Ca in intestine

 ↑ Reabsorption of Ca in the renal tubules

12
 Vitamin D

• It promotes this absorption principally by

increasing the formation of calbindin, a
calcium-binding protein, in the intestinal
epithelial cells
• calcium-stimulated adenosine triphosphatase in
the brush border of the epithelial cells
13
 Calcitonin

Calcitonin
• Secreted by thyroid gland,
• Stimulate Ca2+ deposition in bones and secretion by
kidneys, so lowers blood Ca2+

14
 Calcitonin

• A peptide with 32 aa residue

• Hypocalcemic hormone
 Helps to lower (↓Ca++ ) level of blood
• Produced by Para follicular cells in the thyroid
gland
Target organs:
 Bone, Renal tubules, GIT

15
 Calcitonin...

Effect on bone
• ↓activities of osteoclasts
• ↓formation of new osteoclasts
• ↑activities of osteoblasts
Effect on renal tubules: ↓Reabsorption of
calcium
Effect on GIT: ↓Absorption and transport of
calcium

16
 Clinical correlates
Hypocalcemia
• Tetany: Carpopedal spasm: -
Trousseau’s sign

• Chvostek’s sign
• Convulsion
• Laryngismus
• Impaired blood clotting
 Hyperventilation Carpal spasm
17
Effect of hormone on phosphorous regulation

18
Effects of Other Hormones on Calcium Metabolism

• GH

• Insulin

• Thyroid hormone

• Estrogen

• Glucocorticoid

19
Summary of Ca-homeostasis
PTH secretion is directly proportional. to blood phosphate level inversely
proportional to blood calcium level

20
Summary of Ca-homeostasis…

21
 Adrenal glands
• Located at top of each kidneys
 Suprarenal glands
• Weight of each glands:4gm
• Consists of two components
1. Adrenal cortex: Outer part
 80% of adrenal gland
2. Adrenal medulla: Inner part (20%)

22
 Adrenal cortex
• Adrenal cortex produces steroid hormones
 More than 30 steroid hormones
• Have three distinct functional layers
1. Zona glomerulosa:
 15% of adrenal cortex
 Produces aldosterone due to the presence of
aldosterone synthase
 Stimulated by Angiotensin II and potassium in
plasma
23
 Adrenal cortex…

2. Zona fasciculata:
• 75% adrenal cortex
• Produces
corticosterone, cortisol
& few adrenal
androgens
• Controlled by ACTH

24
Fig. Stimulation of steroidogenesis by
ACTH in zona fasciculata cells

25
 Adrenal cortex…
3. Zona reticularis: inner most zone
 Secretes dehydroepiandrosterone (DHEA)
and androstenedione,
 Small amounts of estrogens and

 Some glucocorticoids
 Controlled by ACTH and cortical androgen
stimulating hormone
26
Adrenocortical Hormones synthesis

 Transport of cholesterol into the adrenal cells is regulated

ACTH,
 Stimulates adrenal steroid synthesis,

 Increases the number of adrenocortical cell receptors for

LDL,
 Activity of enzymes that liberate cholesterol from LDL

27
Adrenocortical Hormones

28
Hormones of adrenal cortex

29
 Mineralocorticoids: Aldosterone

• Aldosterone is the prototype example of

mineralocorticoids
• 60% is transported bound with plasma
proteins
 Shorter half life: 20minutes
• Plasma concentration: 6ng/dl
• Secretion is mainly controlled by potassium and
Ang-II level in plasma
30
Fig:- Stimulation of aldosterone synthesis by angiotensin II (AII)
31
 Aldosterone secretions control

 is very essential for life

 Increase in potassium ion (K+) concentration in ECF

 Decrease in sodium ion (Na+) concentration in ECF

 Decrease in ECF volume

 Adrenocorticotropic hormone (ACTH)

32
Synthesis of aldosterone

33
Aldosterone secretions control

34
 Receptor of Aldesterone

Oxidation of cortisol to cortisone renders the steroid

incapable of binding to the mineralocorticoid receptor

 11 -hydroxysteroid dehydrogenase type 2

35
 Functions of aldosterone

1. ↑Na+ reabsorption by renal tubule

• ↑Aldosterone = ↑Na+ = ↑Osmolality = ↑ADH
2. ↑Tubular hydrogen ion secretion in intercalated
cells of cortical collecting tubules
 If excess it leads to metabolic alkalosis

36
 Functions of aldosterone…

3. ↑K+ secretion by principal cells of collecting

tubules and distal tubules
 Stimulates K+ transport from ECF to cells
 If aldosterone is excess it may lead to
hypokalaemia (< 2meq/L)
• Muscle weakness
 If aldosterone is deficient=
Hyperkalemia
• Cardiac toxicity
37
 Functions of aldosterone…

4. Aldosterone increases NaCl reabsorption by

sweat & salivary ducts & secretion of HCO3- and
K+

5. Aldosterone enhances Na absorption by

intestines, particularly in large intestine

38
Aldosterone escape
• Escape of the kidney from salt-retaining effects of
excess administration or secretion of aldosterone
• When aldosterone level increases
 increases the volume of ECF and
blood pressure.
 Aldosterone-induced high blood pressure decreases
the ECF volume through two types of reactions:
• It stimulates secretion of atrial natriuretic
• Peptide (ANP) from atrial muscles of the heart:

39
Aldosterone escape

40
 Aldosterone escape

• ANP causes excretion of sodium in spite of increase in

aldosterone secretion
 It causes pressure diuresis (excretion of excess
• salt and water by high blood pressure) through
• urine. This decreases the salt and water content
• in ECF, in spite of hypersecretion of aldosterone

• Significance of aldosterone escape

 Because of aldosterone escape, edema does not occur

41
 Glucocorticoids

• Cortisol, cortisone, corticosterone

• Influence metabolism & mediate response to stress

• Cortisol is secreted in major amounts

• Non-stress: CRH, ACTH, cortisol release, negative

feedback
• Stress: Sympathetic NS overrides inhibitory effects of
high cortisol levels and triggers CRH release
42
Synthesis of Cortisol

43
 Cortisol
• 95% activities of glucocorticoids

• 90-95% is transported bound to cortisol binding

globulin or Transcortin
 60-90 minutes half life

• Plasma level: 12 μl/dl

• Metabolized in liver

• Conjugated with glucuronic acid & sulphate

44 25% is excreted via bile and feces 160
Physiologic effects of cortisol
• Produced in response to stress

1. Metabolic Effects

a. On carbohydrates
 Gluconeogenesis hence ↑BGC

 Decreases glucose utilization by cells

• By decreasing translocation of GLUT4

45 • Adrenal Diabetes 161

46
 Physiologic effects of cortisol…

b. On protein metabolism
 ↑Catabolism & decreases anabolism

• Reduces protein stores in almost all

extrahepatic tissues
• Increases amino acid mobilization from
extrahepatic tissues to ECF
47 ↑Liver and plasma proteins
 Physiologic effects of cortisol…

c. On fat metabolism: ↑Lipolysis

 Increases fatty acid mobilization from
adipocytes
• Increased FA in plasma
• Increased fat utilization for energy
• (Ketogenic effect)

48
d. On Mineral metabolism(aldosterone like effect)
 Na+ reabsorption
 K+ excretion
 Ca2+ excretion

49
2. Anti-inflammatory effect
 Important in Resisting Inflammation
 It has anti-inflammatory effects
 The administration of large amounts of cortisol can usually
block inflammation.

It suppresses inflammatory reactions by;

 Stabilizing lysosomal membrane
 Inhibiting formation of inflammatory mediators
 Decreasing capillary permeability
 Inhibiting the migration of leukocytes into the affected area
50
3. Immunosuppressant action

 Inhibits activation and proliferation of both T-

lymphocytes and B-lymphocytes

 Leads to a general depression of lymphoid tissue

4. Cortisol enhances synthesis and release of

catecholamine

51
Physiologic effects of cortisol…

5. Anti-allergic action
6. Growth inhibitory effect
 ↓GH secretion
 Activates osteoclasts- bone resorption
 Inhibits osteoblasts
 Inhibits protein synthesis

7. ↑HCl secretion, contributes to PUD

8. Stimulates surfactant production in lungs

52
Physiologic effects of cortisol…

9. Effects on the Blood Cells and Lymphatic Organs

Glucocorticoids
 Lower the number of
 Basophils in the circulation
 Lymphocyte count
 Size of the lymph nodes and thymus
 Increase the number of
 Neutrophils,
 Platelets, and
53  Red blood cells 167
Regulation of cortisol secretion
Limbic system Cerebral cortex
Emotion
Circadian rhythm Stress
+ + Fear
+
Pain
OC Anaesthesia
_ MB Surgery
CRH + Hemorrhage

Corticotrops + Pyrogens
Hypoglycemia
_ Histamine
ACh

ACTH
+
Adrenal cortex
Zona fasciculata

↑↑ Cortisol:
54
Effects of stress on a body
Stress

Nerve Hypothalamus
Spinal cord
signals
(cross section) Releasing
hormone
Nerve
cell
Anterior pituitary
Blood vessel

Nerve cell

ACTH

Adrenal
gland
Kidney

(A) SHORT-TERM STRESS RESPONSE (B) LONG-TERM STRESS RESPONSE

Effects of epinephrine & norepinephrine:
Effects of Effects of
1. Glycogen broken down to glucose; glucocorticoids
mineralocorticoids:
increased BG :
1. Retention of Na+ 1. Proteins & fats broken
2. Increased BP, RR, MR
& H2O by kidneys down & converted to
5. Change in blood flow patterns, leading 2. Increased glucose, leading to
to increased alertness & decreased blood increased blood glucose
digestive & kidney activity volume & 2. Immune system
55 suppressed
BP
 Adrenal cortex disorder
A. Adrenal hypo secretion
Glucocorticoid or mineralocorticoid deficiency.
Also called chronic adrenal insufficiency,
hypocortisolism / hypocortisism.
Causes Addison’s disease; symptoms:
 hypoglycaemia, hyperkalemia, hypotentsion, muscle weakness,
weight loss, & Low BP.

56
 Adrenal cortex disorder…
Causes of adrenal hypo secretion:
1. Adrenal dysgenesis
 gene mutation on ACTH/the cell hypoplasia.

2. Adrenal destruction
 Autoimmune destruction of the adrenal cortex.

3. Impaired steroidogenesis
 Synthesis problems (cholesterol,  enzymes).

57
Adrenal cortex disorder…

When aldosterone secretion becomes zero,

Large amounts of salt (like sodium chloride) are lost
in the urine.
Decreasing the extracellular fluid volume will occur.
The result is severe extracellular fluid dehydration
and low blood volume, leading to circulatory shock.
This usually causes death within a few days.
when aldosterone is deficient, the extracellular fluid
K + concentration can rise far above normal.
This results weakness of heart contraction and
development of arrhythmia
58
 Adrenal cortex disorder…
B. Adrenal hyper secretion
 Also known as hyperadrenalism
 High corticoids & androgen
 Causes Cushing's syndrome. Cased by;
 Anterior pituitary gland, hypothalamus, and
adrenal cortex adenoma.
 Ectopic release of ACTH (lung carcinoma)

59
 Adrenal cortex disorder…
Symptoms of Cushing's syndrome:
• Deposition of fat around thoracic & upper abdomen, fat
move from lower part of the body & increased deposition
(the feature is called buffalo torso).
• Other symptoms:
– Face edematous, acne & hirsutism
– Hypertension (as its mineralocorticoid effect)
– Weight gain, particularly of the trunk & face with sparing of the
limbs (central obesity)
– Moon face.

60
 Symptoms of Cushing's syndrome

 Poor wound healing.

 Hyperglycemia
 Thinning of extremities
 Bone resorption and
osteoporosis due to protein
depletion.
 Purple striae: Reddish purple
stripes on abdomen
61
 Adrenal cortex disorder…

C. Hyper aldosteronism
High aldosteron secretion.
Types
1. 1o (Conn syndrome): tumor of ZG

2. 2o Hyperaldosteronism
 Signs, symptoms
 hypokalemia, hypernatremia
 muscle cramps (due to hyper excitability of neurons),
 metabolic alkalosis (due to ↑secretion of H+ by kidney)
 High pH of the blood makes calcium less available to the
tissues & causes symptoms of hypocalcaemia.
62
 Adrenal androgens
• Produced in small amount mainly at Zona
Reticularis
• Dehydroepiandrosterone (DHEA) &
androstendione
• Both are converted to testosterone in
circulation
• Androgens can be converted to estrogens in
• adipose
Androgenstissue byTestosterone
the aromatase enzyme
Estrogen

Aromatase

63
 Adrenal androgens…
• Progesterone is formed in adrenal cortex as
intermediate but not normally released to blood
• Adrenal androgen secretion is primarily controlled by
ACTH
Function of adrenal androgen
• Initiate development of 2o sexual characteristics; enlargement
of genital organs, growth of hairs in axillary and pubic areas

64
 Adrenogenital Syndrome
• Hypersecretion of adrenal androgens usually due to
adrenal tumors
• Lead to intense masculinizing effects throughout the
body
• In females: Virilism like beard, deeper voice,
baldness if she has genetic trait for baldness,
masculine hair distribution on body & pubis,
clitoral growth to resemble penis & muscular

65
 Adrenogenital Syndrome…

• In males:
 Same as characteristics developed in
females
 Rapid growth of male sexual organs

Exercise: What is Hirsutism? And what causes

it?

66
 Catecholamines
• Epinephrine and Norepinephrine

• Produced by adrenal medulla

• Stimulated by sympathetic nervous system

 Sympathoadrenal system

• Both derived from hydroxylation of tyrosine

• Both water soluble

• Their
67 receptors are at cell membrane
Synthesis of catecholamines

68
 Adrenal Medulla

• Produces two hormones (catecholamines)

1. Adrenaline/epinephrine(90%)
2. Noradrenaline/norepinephrine
Effects
• Glycogenolysis in liver and skeletal muscle
• Mobilization of FFA
• Increased plasma lactate and
• Stimulation of the metabolic rate
69
Physiologic effects of catecholamines

1. Increases heart activity

2. Bronchodilation
3. Inhibits GI motility
4. ↑Mental alertness
5. ↑blood glucose level
↑ Lipolysis, ↑Utilization of fat
↑ Protein catabolism
6. ↑Metabolic rate (MR)
70
 Hypersecretion of A and NA.
 AKA Pheochromocytoma
 Caused by tumor of chromophil cells in adrenal medulla.

Signs and Symptoms

 Characteristic feature is hypertension(endocrine or secondary
hypertension).
 Other features:

1. Anxiety 7. Nausea and vomiting

2. Chest pain 8. Palpitation

3. Fever 9. Polyuria and glucosuria

4. Headache 10. Sweating and flushing

5. Hyperglycemia 11. Tachycardia
6. Metabolic disorders 12. Weight loss.
71
 Endocrine pancreas

• Pancreas is composed of 2 types of

tissues
1. Acini: 80%
 Secrete digestive juices into
duodenum
2. Islets of Langerhans: 2%
 Endocrine portion
 Secretion added to blood stream
directly
72
Pancreas

• Both endocrine and exocrine gland

• Endocrine cells (Islets of Larngerhans); 2%
pancreatic tissue
• 4-types of endocrine cells
1. α-cells: 25%
2. β-Cells: 65%
3. δ-Cells: 8%
4. F-Cells: 2%
73
Pancreas…

74
Glucose homeostasis

75
 Insulin

• Insulin derived from Latin word insula

meaning island
• Secreted from Beta Cells of pancreatic
islets
• Insulin is anabolic hormone
• Contains 51 amino acid residues
• Consisted of two amino acid chains connected by
disulphide bond
• 76Is hormone of nutrient abundance
 Insulin synthesis
• Synthesis is in RER
 Preproinsulin is formed
 Cleaved in ER to proinsulin w/c has three
chains (A,B,C) of peptides
• Most proinsulin is cleaved in Golgi apparatus to
form insulin by prohormone convertase
 Composed of A & B chains connected by
disulfide linkages, and C chain peptide, called
connecting peptide (C peptide)
77
 Insulin synthesis…

• Insulin & C peptide are packaged in granules &

secreted in equal amounts
 ~5 to 10% of final secreted product is still in
the form of proinsulin
• Proinsulin & C peptide have no insulin activity
• C peptide binds to G protein–coupled
membrane receptor, and elicits activation of
Na+-K+ ATPase & endothelial nitric oxide
synthase
78
79 187
Mechanism of insulin secretion

80 188
81
Insulin…

• Usually transported as free/unbound

• Half life: ~6minutes
• Degradation: by insulinase

82 189
 MOA of Insulin
• Insulin binds to its receptor
• Enzyme-linked receptor
• Autophosphorylation of beta subunits activates

tyrosine kinase
• TK then activates insulin receptor substrates

83 190
MOA of Insulin…

84 191
 Function of insulin
• Glucose transporter
• Glukokinase
• Liver phosphorylase
• Lipoprotein lipase
• Hormone-sensitive lipase

85 192
 Function of insulin

• Muscle
 Increased glucose entry
 Increased glycogen synthesis
 Increased amino acid uptake
 Increased protein synthesis in ribosomes
 Decreased protein catabolism
 Decreased release of gluconeogenic amino acids
 Increased ketone uptake
 Increased K+ uptake
86 194
 Function of insulin
Liver
 Decreased ketogenesis
 Increased protein synthesis
 Increased lipid synthesis
 Decreased glucose output due to decreased
gluconeogenesis, increased glycogen synthesis, and
increased glycolysis
General
 Increased cell growth

87 195
 Functions of Insulin

• Promote glycogen, fat & protein synthesis

On CHO Metabolism
• ↑Glucose transport & utilization

• GLUT4(insulin dependent)

• ↑Glycogenesis via glycogen synthase

• ↓Glycogenolysis: inhibits glycogen phosphorylase

88 196
 Functions of Insulin

• ↓Gluconeogenesis by inhibiting Gluconeogenic

enzymes
• Stimulates glycolysis by stimulating
phosphofructokinase and pyruvate kinase
• On protein metabolism
 ↑Protein synthesis, ↑AA transport
• ↓protein catabolism

89 197
Functions of Insulin…
• On fat metabolism
 ↑Lipogenesis, ↓Lipolysis
 Inhibits the action of lipase
On ions
 ↑K+ transport into cells
On growth: Promotes body growth

90 198
 Regulation of insulin secretion
Exercise
GIT hormones
Hyperglycemia + • GIP
+ • GLP-1
Amino acids +
• Gastrin
FFA + • Secretin
ketones Factors
• CCK
affecting insulin
Parasympathetic +
Secretion of
Stimulation -
β-cells
– Paracrine
- • Somatostatin
• Sympatheti +
Ach +
c + Oral hypoglycemic drugs
Stimulation (glyburide, tolbutamide)
(ɑ-2 AR ) Hyperkalemia
• Stress GH, PRL Glucagon

91 199
Glucagon

• Made of 29 amino acids

• Produced from pancreatic α-
cells
• Secreted when blood glucose
falls
• Hyperglycemic hormone
Analogy:
 Glucagon is knife that
cuts up glycogen

92
 How does glucagon work?

Do not even try to remember the details!!!

1) Activation
93 of “kinases”, --> 2) phosphorylation of enzymes.
Function of glucagon

1. On CHO metabolism
 ↑Glycogenolysis, ↑Gluconeogenesis

 Net effect is ↑blood glucose level

2. On Lipid metabolism
 ↑Lipolysis,↑Ketogenesis

3. On Protein: ↑protein catabolism

 94 Calorigenic effect
 Function of glucagon…

On CVS
 ↑Frequency of heart beat (HR)
 ↑Cardiac force pf contraction by
activating myocardiac adenyly cyclase

 ↑BF in some tissues, esp. kidneys

• Enhances bile secretion

• Inhibits gastric acid secretion

95
 Function of glucagon…

• Inhibits sodium reabsorption by renal tubules

hence Natriuresis
• Stimulates insulin, somatostatin and GH
secretion

96
Regulation of glucose

• Insulin

• Glucagon

• Sympathetic activity

• Growth hormone

• Glucocorticoids

97
The Regulation of Blood Glucose Concentrations

98
 Glucose homeostasis disorders
= abnormalities on insulin.
 Diabetes mellitus
 Syndrome characterized by hyperglycemia.
 Symptoms :
 Polyuria
 excessive urine production, glucose osmotic effect.
 Polydipsia
 excessive thirst & ↑ fluid intake, for compensation.
 polyphagia
• excessive eating

99
 Types of diabetes mellitus
Type I DM
• Juvenile diabetes
• Insulin dependent DM
• As the pancreas does not
produce sufficient insulin, it
is treated by insulin
injections.
Type II DM
• Maturity onset diabetes
• Insulin resistance DM
• The pancreas does produce
enough insulin, but the target
cells do not respond to it.

 Complications of DM
- Cardiopathy, nephropathy, neuropathy & retinopathy,
gangrene [wound is unhealed].
100
 Hyperinsulinism
 Caused: Tumor of β-cells in the islets of Langerhans.
 Signs and Symptoms

1. Hypoglycemia: Blood glucose level falls below 50 mg/dL.

2. Manifestations of central nervous system
 Nervousness,

 Tremor all over the body and sweating.

 Clonic convulsions
 Unconsciousness.

 Coma occurs due to the damage of neurons

 All together called neuroglycopenic symptoms.
101
 Gonads
 Are testes in male & ovaries in female.
 Both of these organs produce & secrete hormones that are balanced
by the hypothalamus & pituitary glands.
 The main hormones from the reproductive organs are:
 Testosterone
 Estrogen

102
Physiology of sex hormones

Estrogen

Progesterone and

Testosterones

103
 Testosterone source

• Primarily secreted in the

 Testes

 Placenta

 ovaries and

 the adrenal glands

• Principal male sex hormone and an anabolic steroid

• Largest amounts from testes

104
Testosterone

• Androgen a steroid hormone, that stimulates or

controls the development and maintenance of
masculine characteristics.
• Stimulates the activity of the accessory male sex
organs and development of male secondary sex
characteristics.
 The primary and most well-known androgen
testosterone
105 211
Functions of Testosterone
• Prenatal effects/ Intrauterine life
 Determine 1 sexual chrxs

 Induces the development of the Wolffian duct into the male

external genitalia, ie, epididymis, vas deferens, seminal
vesicles and prostate.
 Induces the closure of the urogenital slit and the
formation of the male external genitalia (penis and
scrotum)
106Descending of testis.
212
Testosterone
 Secondary sexual characteristics
 Promotes growth of axillary and facial hair
 Enlargement of larynx
 Enhances skeleton and muscle mass

 Boosts metabolic rate

 Thickens skin

3/6/2023
107 213
Testosterone

 CNS

 Stimulates libido and other behavioral effects.

 Integumentary system

 ↑ Rate of secretion of sebaceous glands → acne,

thick
 Metabolism: ↑ Basal metabolic rate

108 214
 Testosterone

• Fluid + electrolyte balance:

 Retention of N, K, P, Na, H2O, Ca, SO4 and PO4

• Lipoproteins:
 ↑ VLDL, ↑ LDL, decrease HDL
(cardiac/ coronary problems in men)

109 215
 Estrogen

• Secreted Primarily by

 The granulosa cells of the ovarian follicles

 The corpus luteum

 The placenta(during pregnancy)

110 216
 Estrogen function
• Facilitate the growth of the ovarian follicles

• Increase the motility of the uterine tubes

• Increase the amount of uterine muscle and its content of

contractile proteins
• Causes onset of secondary Sexual Characteristics

• Promotes bone lengthening and epiphyseal plate

closure
• Inhibits
111 bone resorption 217
Progesterone

Origin:
 Ovarian follicles
 Corpus luteum (non-pregnant female)
 Placenta (pregnant)
 Adrenal cortex
 Testes

3/6/2023
112 218
Function of progesterone
• On uterus
• Inhibits excitability of myometrium
• Stimulates secretion of thick, alkaline cervical
mucous
• Promote secretory changes in the uterine
endometrium
• On breast
• Stimulates development of secretary cells.
• Stimulates differentiation of ductile system
• Has a thermogenic action
113 219
Hypothalamic-Pituitary ovary axis

• GnRH secretes in pulses lasting 5 to 25 minutes -

every 1 to 2 hours
• Estrogen has a strong effect to inhibit the production of
LH & FSH

3/6/2023
114 220
Hypothalamic-Pituitary-ovary axis…

• Inhibitory effect of estrogen is multiplied when

progesterone is available.
• But progesterone itself has little effect.

• Inhibits secretion of LH and FSH

• Inhibin ( from granulosa cells) has feedback effects on

pituitary

3/6/2023
115 221