SYLLABUS

CONVENTIONAL
CONSTRUCTION
MATERIALS
 BRICK
● A brick is a man-made building material used to make walls and make
places to walk.

● It is a single unit of a kneaded clay-bearing soil, sand and lime, or

concrete material, fire-hardened or air-dried, used in masonry
construction.

● Bricks are made mostly of clay. They are put into moulds or cut with
wires, and then baked in an oven.

● The colour of a brick depends on the clay from which it was made.
● The standard size of common building bricks are 190 mm x 90 mm x 90
mm, but the traditional size is 230 mm x 114 mm x 76 mm The average
weight of brick is 3 kg to 3.5 kg.
● Constituents of good brick earth are:
● 1. Alumina - It is the chief constituent of Brick.

○ A good brick earth should contain 20 to 30 percent

of alumina.
○ This imparts plasticity to earth so that it can be
moulded to any desired size and shape.
○ If present in excess, raw bricks shrink and warp
during drying and burning.
● 2. Silica - It exists in clay either as free or combined form.

○ A good brick earth shou contain about 60 to 70 percent of

silica.
○ The presence of silica prevents cracking shrinking and
warping of raw bricks.
○ It thus imparts uniform shape to the bricks

○ Durability of bricks depends on proper proportion of silica

in brick earth since excess of silica destroys the cohesion
between particles and brick become brittle.
● 3. Lime-

○ Small quantity of lime (not exceeding 5%) is

desirable since the excess lime causes the brick to
melt and hence the shape is lost.
○ Very finely powdered state lime assist the fusion of
sand at high temperature in the kiln whereas lumps
of lime converted into quick lime after burning
which expands in presence of moist resulting in
splitting of bricks into pieces.
● 4. Oxides of iron –
○ Small quantity of oxides of iron to the extent of about 5
to 6 per cent helps as lime to fuse sand thus binds the
particle also imparts red colour to brick
○ Excess of oxide of iron makes the brick dark blue or
blackish. If the quantity of iron. oxide is comparatively
less, the brick will be yellowish in colour.
● 3. Magnesia-Magnesia decreases the shrinkage, but
excess magnesia leads to the decay of bricks and small
quantity of magnesia imparts yellowish tint to brick.
● 3. Magnesia-Magnesia decreases the shrinkage, but
excess magnesia leads to the decay of bricks and small
quantity of magnesia imparts yellowish tint to brick.
Qualities of Good Brick:
• Bricks should be table well burnt in kilns, copper coloured, free from cracks and
with sharp and square edges.

• Bricks should be uniform shape and should be of standard size.

• Bricks should give clear ringing sound when struck each other.

• Bricks when broken should show a bright homogeneous and compact structure
free from voids.

• Bricks should not absorb water more than 20 percent by weight for first class bricks
and 22 percent by weight for second class bricks, when soaked in cold water for a
period of 24 hours.
TESTS ON BRICKS
Compressive Strength Test

● Couple of bricks are taken at random and soaked in water for 24 hours.
They are then taken out and allowed to drain the water absorbed.

● The bricks are then applied with a compressive load at a rate of 140
kg/sq cm per minute and the ultimate strength is obtained.

● The average value indicated the compressive strength of the batch of

given bricks.

● The minimum compressive stregth should be 3.5N/mm2

Water Absorption Test

● Couple of bricks are taken at random and dried weight is obtained.

● They are then cooled to room temperature and soaked into clean
water for 24 hours.

● They are then taken out and wiped with cloth and weighted

● The increase in weight expressed in percentage is the water

absorption.
● It should not be more than 20% for good specimen and
not more than 15% for class 1 bricks
Efflorescence Test

The presence of soluble salt in bricks cause efflorescence on surface.

Couple of samples are taken and immersed in distilled water for 24

hours.

They are then taken out and the water is allowed to evaporate.

This process is repeated thrice or four times to test the appearance of

salt patched on the surface.
Dimension Tolerance Test

The process of making of bricks involves high temperatures during which the
dimension of moulded bricks could change.

Couple of bricks are selected at random and their size is analysed with the
accuracy of 1mm.

Hardness Test

Hardness refers to the material’s ability to resist surface abrasion.

Couple of bricks are selected at random and are tested for hardness by
scratching with fingernail.
Soundness Test

When two bricks are struck together, it must produce a metallic sound
which is a characteristic of good quality bricks. Couple of bricks are
selected at random and are tested with a reference brick for soundness
test.
BRICKS
CLASSIFICATION OF BRICKS
Class I Bricks

• They are used where superior and permanent work is desirable.

• Used when brick texture is supposed to be exposed.

Crushing stregth shall not be less than 10.5N/mm2 and water

absorption shall not exceed 15% of dry weight when immersed in water
for 24 hours
Class II Bricks

• These are commonly used in permanent brick masonry

work where the plastering is followed.

Crushing stregth shall not be less than 7 N/mm2

and water absorption shall not exceed 22% of dry
weight when immersed in water for 24 hours
Class III Bricks

• These are desirable for only least

important temporary works

When struck together they give dull sound.

Water absorption should not exceed 24% by

weight
Class IV Bricks

• These are overburnt bricks and have very little compressive strength making
them unfit for any masonry work. They are used as aggregates for concrete
roads, floor and foundations
Uses of Bricks
● 1.Bricks are used for construction of walls, foundations
of structures.
● 2. Used in construction of bridges and dams.
● 3. Used for paving and road works.
● 4. Firebricks are used for furnaces, chimneys etc.
● 5. Bricks are used for ornamental works.
 Special types of bricks
● There are certain types of bricks, which are not in regular
shape and size. Compositions of these bricks are also
different from ordinary bricks. The following are the some
special types of bricks.
● 1. Hollow brick
○ Hollow bricks are prepared from special type of clay and
are light in weight. It has hollow spaces as shown in the
figure.
○ The thickness of such bricks is about 20-25mm. They
reduce transmission of heat, sound because of the
hollow cavities.
○ It is also known as cavity brick or cellular brick.
● 2. Perforated brick
○ As shown in the figure, these bricks
have perforations.
○ They are light in weight and less
material only required.
○ It is easy to manufacture. It provides
thermal comfort in the building. It is
suitable for tropical countries.
○ These are used for brick panels of
lightweight structures and multi-
storied structures.
● Cow nose brick

○ These are specially moulded brick having two vertical short comers rounded
as shown in the figure.

○ These bricks are used in the construction of brick pillars, when smooth
comers are required
● Bull nose brick

○ A brick with any one of the four

vertical short edges rounded is
called a bull nose brick.

○ It is used where sharp comers of

the wall are not required
● 7. Coping brick
○ This brick is made according to the thickness of the
wall on which coping is to be provided.
○ These bricks take various forms such as chamfered.
half round etc. as shown in the figure.
● Sand lime brick
○ Sand lime bricks have the composition as sand (88-
92%), lime (8-12 %), water and pigment (0.2-3%) of
the total weight.
○ These are hard and strong and have uniform colour
and texture.
○ Normally these bricks are free from efflorescence.
○ These bricks can be prepared where clay is not
available in plenty. Sand lime bricks can be used in
buildings and for ornamental work.
Sand lime brick
● 9. Refractory brick
● These bricks are capable of resisting high temperature without
softening or melting.
● They are made from fire clays. These are white yellowish in colour.
● They are used for lining of furnaces, chimneys, kilns, ovens,
fireplaces etc. The different types of refractory bricks are acidic
bricks, basic bricks and neutral bricks
● 10. Soild block
● Soild block bricks are of same
composition of hollow block
bricks. (ie. 6mm aggregate sand
and cement), only difference is
these bricks do not have any
hollow spaces.
● These can be used for non-load
bearing walls.
● These are used extensively in
multistoried framed structures.
STONES

The stones which are suitable for the construction of the structures such
as retaining walls, abutments, dams, barrages, roads etc are known as
building stones.

Building stones should possess enough strength and durability.

Stones have been considered as one of the popular building material from
the olden days due to their availability in abundance from the natural
rocks.
CLASSIFICATION OF ROCKS (STONES)
There are three main classes of rocks.

(1) CHEMICAL CLASSIFICATION:

Chemically stones are stones are classified into three groups.

(i) Argillaceous Rocks: Argillaceous or clay stones are those stones

which contain (alumina Al2O3 ) (clay) as principal constituent. These
stones are less durable stones. All clay stones belong to this group.
The examples of argillaceous rocks are Slate, Laterite, etc.
Slate Laterite
(ii) Siliceous Rocks:

● The stones which contain (Silica SiO2 ) as principal constituent are called
siliceous rocks. These stones are durable stones.
● The examples of siliceous rocks are granite, Quartzite and Sand stone
etc.

(ii) Calcareous Rocks:

● The stones which contain calcareous material (CaCO3 ) as principal

constituent are called calcareous rocks. They also contain some
proportion of siliceous and clay matter.
● The examples of calcareous rocks are marble stone and lime stone, etc.
(2) PHYSICAL CLASSIFICATION:

Physically rocks are classified as:

(i) Stratified Rocks:

● The rocks which are split into thin slabs or layers easily are called
stratified rocks.
● All sedimentary rocks are essentially stratified and metamorphic rocks
may be either stratified or unstratified depending upon its parent rock.
● The examples of stratified rocks are Slate, Sand stone and Lime stone.
Stratified Rocks
• (ii) Unstratified Rocks:
• These rocks do not show sign of stratification and can not be easily
split into thin slabs or layers are called unstratified rocks. All igneous
rocks are essentially unstratified and metamorphic rocks may be either
stratified or unstratified.

• The examples of unstratified rocks are Granite, Basalt and Lime Trap.
(3) GEOLOGICAL CLASSIFICATION
• Geologically stones are stones are classified into three groups.

• (i) Igneous or Primary Rocks:

• These are primary rocks which are formed from molten magma.

• They represent different structural features depending upon the condition of

solidification and composition. Generally igneous rocks are strong and durable.

• These are also called unstratified or eruptive rocks.

• The examples of igneous rocks are granite, basalt, trap, etc.

(ii) Sedimentary or Secondary Rocks:
• These are secondary rocks and are formed by the denudation and deposition of
previously existing rocks due to weathering actions.

• Water (rain) is the most powerful and principal weathering agent. The other
destructive agents are frost, winds and chemical actions. The destructive agents
break up the surface of earth which gets further broken up when carried down by
rains and rivers. When the velocity of water in the rivers those broken particles are
deposited in the river bed and thus sedimentary rocks are formed.

• These are also called aqueous and stratified rocks or The rocks which are formed
by gradual deposition are called Sedimentary Rocks.

• Examples: Lime stone, sand stone, etc.

• (iii) Metamorphic or Tertiary Rocks:
• Rocks which are formed due to metamorphic action of pressure or
internal heat or by both (or) alteration of original structure due to heat and
excessive pressure) are called Metamorphic Rocks.

• Examples: Marble etc.

COMMON USES OF BUILDING STONE:
● It is used in foundations of buildings, construction of dams, barrages, etc,
● In its crushed (powdered form) it is used as artificial sand, It is used as raw
material for manufacturing of cement,
● In its broken form it is used as material for construction of road and railway
tracks,
● It is used as decorative material in buildings,
● It is also used as parts of buildings such as lintels and arches, etc,
● It is also used as thin slabs for building roofing,
● It is also used for ornamental works in buildings,
● In its broken form it is in the manufacturing of concrete,
CHARACTERISTICS OF GOOD BUILDING STONES:
● 1. Crushing strength Stones should have high compressive strength as they are
generally used as a compression member. The load required per unit area to crush a
specimen of stone subjected to compressive load is known as crushing strength,
expressed in N/mm². Compressive strength of building stones in practice, ranges
between 1 to 350 N/mm2. Indian standard code recommends a minimum crushing
strength of 3.5 N/mm2 for any building block.

● 2. Hardness It is an important property to be considered when stone is used for

flooring and pavement. Coefficient of hardness is to be found by the hardness test. For
road works, coefficient of hardness should be at least 17. For building works stones
with coefficient of hardness less than 14 should not be used.
● 3. Specific gravity - Denser stones are stronger. Light weight stones are weak.
Hence stones with specific gravity less than 2.4 are considered unsuitable for
buildings.
● 4. Structure - General structure refers to the manner in which the particles
forming the mass of a stone are arranged. The structure of the stone may be
stratified (layered) or un-stratified. Structured stones should be easily dressed and
are commonly used as building units of construction of walls, columns, etc. Un-
stratified stones, mostly obtained from igneous rocks, are hard and difficult to
dress. They are preferred for foundation works, construction of heavy structures
such as dams, retaining walls, etc.
● Texture Texture of stone is indicated by the arrangement, size and
shape of the grains in the stone. Fine grained stones with
homogeneous distribution look attractive and hence they are used
for carving. Such stones are usually strong and durable.
● Appearance- A stone with uniform and attractive colour is
durable, if grains are compact. Marble and granite get very good
appearance, when polished. Hence, they are used for face works
in buildings.
● Percentage wear - It is measured by abrasion test. It is an
important property to considered in selecting aggregate for road
works and railway ballast. A good stone should not show wear of
more than 2%.
● 8. Porosity and absorption - All stones have pores and hence
absorb water. When the water, containing acidic gases forming
light acids, are absorbed by porous stones, reaction of such water
with the mineral and other constituent cause them to
crumble .The porosity seriously affects the durability of stones.
Also, in co regions, the pore water freezes resulting in increase in
volume and the consequent disintegration of stone. Water
absorption is a measure of the porosity of stone. Water
absorption test is specified as percentage of water absorbed by
the stone when it immersed under water for 24 hours. For a good
stone it should be as small as possible and in no case more than 5.
● Weather resistance - A good building stone should be durable and should
have enough resistance to weathering. Stones which are crystalline in
structure homogeneous and close grained have better durability.
● Durability - Stones selected should good resistance against adverse
effects of nature forces like wind, rain and heat.
● Toughness- The resistance to impact is called toughness. Building stones
should be tough enough to sustain stresses developed due to vibrations.
The vibrations may due to the machinery mounted over them or due to
the loads moving over them. Toughness is determined by impact test.
Stones with toughness index more than 19 preferred for road works.
Toughness indexes 13 to 19 are considered as medium tough and stones
with toughness index less than 13 are poor stones.
● Physical Strength: Crystalline structures are more durable than non-
crystalline structure stone.
● Seasoning Qualities: A good building stone should have good
seasoning qualities. All the stones contain some moisture which is
known as quarry sap stones. The period 3-6 months are enough for
seasoning. The process removing moisture from pores is called
seasoning. The best way of seasoning is allow it to the action of nature
(exposing to atmosphere) for 6 to 12 months.
● Fire resistance: A good building stone should be fire resistant. Some
stones such as basalt and trap resist fire very well but some varieties
of igneous and metamorphic stones are very weak against fire.
Common building Stones
● Common building stones.The following are the some of the commonly used stones.

● 1. Basalt and trap - These are igneous rocks.

○ They are hard, compact, durable unstratified stone.

○ Their colour varies from dark grey to black. Fractures and joints are common.
Their specific gravity strength varies from 2.6 to 3.

○ Their compressive strength varies from 150 to 190 N/mm2. They are also used
for rubble masonry works for bridge piers, river walls and dams.

○ They are used as paving, as concrete aggregate and manufacture of artificial

stone. They are also used as decorative features in structures.
● 2. Granite –
○ Granites are also igneous rocks.

○ The colour varies from light gray to pink.

○ The structure is crystalline, fine to coarse grained. They are hard,

compact and un stratified.
○ Its specific gravity ranges from 2.6 to 2.7 and compressive strength
ranges from is 90 to 210 N/mm2.
○ They are used for heavy constructions such as dams, bridges, seas
walls, light houses, etc. Granites are extensively used for flooring.
Granite chippings are used for the manufacture of concrete or
artificial stones.
● 3. Sand stone –

○ These are sedimentary rocks, and hence stratified.

○ They are found in various colours like white, grey, red, buff, brown,
yellow and even dark gray.

○ The specific gravity varies from 2.65 to 2.95 and compressive

strength varies from 50 to 110 N/mm.

○ They are used extensively for general building construction. Sand

stone slabs are used for flooring, and paving. They are also used as
aggregate in concrete.
● Limestone

○ It is a sedimentary rock. It is available in grey, blue, brown colour.

○ The specific gravity varies from 2 to 2.7.

○ Crushing strength varies from 40 to 90 N/mm2.

○ They are used for regular building construction, paving and flooring.

○ They are extensively used for the manufacture of lime and cement.
CEMENT
 Definition:

Cement is a powdery substance made by calcining lime and

clay, mixed with water to form mortar or mixed with
sand, gravel, and water to make concrete.
 History:

The word "cement" can be traced back to the Roman

word termed as Caementicium,

Lime and clay have been used as

cementing
material on constructions through many centuries.

Best known surviving example is the Pantheon in

Rome

In 1824 Joseph Aspdin from England invented the

Portland cement
 PORTLAND CEMENT

Portland cement is the most common type of cement in general

use around the world, used as a basic ingredient of concrete, mortar,
stucco(plaster), and most non-speciality grout.
 SOURCE
ROCKS

Calcareous Rocks(Limestone) Argillaceous Rocks(Clay)

Chemical Composition of Portland
Cement:

• The proportions of these oxides determine the

proportions of the compounds which affect the
performance of the cement.
• Portland cement is composed of four major oxides
(CaO, SiO2, Al2O3, Fe2O3 ≥90%) & some minor oxides.
Minor refers to the quantity not importance.
 Chemical Composition of Portland Cement:

INGREDIENTS PERCENTAGE

LIME 60-67

SILICA 17-25

ALUMINA 3-8

CALCIUM SULPHATE 0.1-0.5

IRON OXIDE 0.5-6

MAGNESIA 0.1-4

SULPHUR TRIOXIDE 1-2.75

 Compound Composition of Portland
Cement
:
In rotary kiln, oxides present in the raw materials of cement when subjected to high temperature
combine with each other to form complex compounds. These are called Bogue's compounds. Those
are given below

Name Chemical Formula Abbreviations

Tri Calcium Silicate 3CaO.SiO2 C3S

Di Calcium Silicate 2CaO.SiO2 C2S
Tri Calcium Aluminate 3CaO.Al2O3 C3A
Tetracalcium Aluminoferrite Ca4Al2Fe2O10 C4AF
Tricalcium aluminate, C3A:-
It liberates a lot of heat during the early stages of hydration, but has little strength contribution. Gypsum slows
down
the hydration rate of C3A. Cement low in C3A is sulfate resistant.

Tricalcium silicate, C3S:-

This compound hydrates and hardens rapidly. It is largely responsible for portland cement’s initial set and
early strength gain.

Dicalcium silicate, C2S:-

C2S hydrates and hardens slowly. It is largely responsible for strength gain after one week.

Tetracalcium Aluminoferrite :-
This is a fluxing agent which reduces the melting temperature of the raw materials in the kiln . It hydrates
rapidly, but does not contribute much to strength of the cement paste.
 Types of Cement Manufacturing
Processes

• Wet
Process

• Dry
Process
• Wet Process • Dry Process
Manufacturing Process of Cement:

• Quarry
• Grinding
• Burning
• Grinding
• Storage
• Packing
• Dispatch
 TYPES OF CEMENT:

❖ Rapid hardening cement:

The initial and final setting times of this cement are same as those of
ordinary cement. But it attains high strength in early days. It contains high
percentage of tricalcium silicate C3S to the extent of about 56%.

❖ Sulphate resisting cement:

In this cement, the percentage of tricalcium aluminate C3A is kept below

5 percent and it results in the increase in resisting power against
sulphates.
 TYPES OF CEMENT:

❖ Coloured cement:

● The cement of desired colour may be obtained by intimately mixing mineral

pigments with ordinary cement.
● These types of coloured cement are widely used for finishing of floors, external surfaces,
artificial marble, window sill slabs, textured panel faces, stair treads, etc.

❖ White cement:
● White cement is prepared from such raw materials which are practically free from
colouring oxides of iron, manganese or chromium.
● It is white in colour and is used for floor finish, plaster
work, ornament work, etc.
 TYPES OF CEMENT:

❖ Low heat cement:

The considerable heat is produced during the setting of cement. In order to reduce the amount
of heat, this type of cement is used. It contains lower percentage of tricalcium aluminate C3A
of about 5% and higher percentage of dicalcium silicate C2S of about 46%.

❖ Pozzolana cement:

Pozzolana is a volcanic powder. It is found in Italy near Vesuvius. This type of cement is used to
prepare mass concrete of lean mix and for marine structures. It is also used in sewage works ad
for laying concrete under water
The difference between ordinary
cement and white cements

⮚ The amount of chromium, manganese, iron compounds is

significantly less in white cement in comparison to gray
cement

⮚ Production of white cement consumes significantly more

energy in comparison to gray cement.
Field Tests of Cement:

⮚ Date of Manufacturing: As the strength of cement reduces with

age, the date of manufacturing of cement bags should be checked.

⮚ Cement Color: The color of cement should be uniform. It should be

typical cement colour i.e. grey colour with a light greenish shade .

⮚ Whether Hard Lumps are Formed: Cement should be free from

hard lumps. Such lumps are formed by the absorption of moisture from
the atmosphere.
Field Tests of Cement:

⮚ Temperature Inside Cement Bag: If the hand is plunged into a

bag of cement, it should be cool inside the cement bag. If hydration
reaction takes place inside the bag, it will become warm.

⮚ Smoothness Test: When cement is touched or rubbed in between

fingers, it should give smooth feeling. If it felt rough, it indicates
adulteration with sand.

⮚ Water Sinking Test:. If a small quantity of cement is thrown to the

water, it should float some time before finally sinking
USES OF CEMENT:
GOOD QUALITIES OF CEMENT:

● Provides strength to masonry

● Stiffens or hardens early
● Possesses good plasticity
● An excellent building material
● Easily workable
● Good moisture-resistant
SAND

Sand is a naturally occurring granular material composed of finely

divided rock and mineral particles. the most common constituent
of sand is silica (silicon dioxide, or SiO2 ), usually in the form of
quartz.
PIT SAND
This sand is obtained by forming pits in soils. It is
excavated from a depth of about 1-2 m from the
ground level. This sand is found as deposits in soil
and it consists of sharp angular grains, which are
free from salts.

It serves as an excellent material for mortar or

concrete work. Pit sand must be made free from
clay and other organic materials before it can be
used in mortar. A coating of oxide of iron over the
sand grains should be removed.
RIVER SAND

This sand is widely used for all purposes. It is obtained from the banks or beds
of rivers and it consists of fine rounded grains. The presence of fine rounded
grains is due to mutual attrition under the action of water current.

The river sand is available in clean conditions. The river sand is almost white in
color. It is mainly used for plastering. In north India , Yamuna banks are a great
source of River sand .
SEA SAND

This is obtained from sea shores. It is brown in color and it also has the fine rounded grain.
Sea sand

As it is obtained from sea it contains salt, which is used in attracting moisture from
atmosphere. Such absorption causes dampness and disintegration of work.

It is generally not used for engineering purpose due to its retards setting action of cement.
It is normally used for non structural purposes.
Fine sand The sand passing through a sieve with clear
openings of 1.5mm is known as fine sand. Fine sand is mainly
used for plastering.

Coarse Sand The sand passing through a sieve with clear

openings of 3.5mm is known as Coarse Sand. Coarse Sand is
generally used for masonry work.

Gravelly Sand The sand passing through the sieve of 7.62mm

is known as Gravelly Sand. It is generally used for concrete
work.
Clean Sand

•These are well graded sand containing mostly quartz (SiO2 )

•It is free from any organic or inorganic impurities

•It is perfect for construction purposes

Silty Sand

•These are poorly graded sand with considerable amount of

Silt

•The size of silt particles are very small and form lump

•Not good for construction purpose

Clayey Sand

This sand have prominent clay fraction and plastic fines

Traditionally used for the construction of walls Also used as mortar for bricks
because of its high adhesive property
 Sieve Analysis
● Sieve analysis of fine aggregates is one of the most important tests
performed on-site.
● Aggregates are inert materials that are mixed with binding
materials such as cement or lime for the manufacturing of mortar
or concrete.
● It is also used as fillers in mortar and concrete.
● Aggregates size varies from several inches to the size of the
smallest grain of sand.
● The Aggregates(fine + coarse) generally occupy 60% to 75% of
the concrete volume or 70% to 85% by mass and strongly
influence the concrete’s freshly mixed and hardened properties,
mixture proportions, and economy.
● All Aggregates pass IS 4.75 mm sieve is classified as fine
Aggregates.
● All aggregate technicians use the sieve analysis (gradation test) to
determines the gradation (the particle size distribution, by size,
within a given sample)
● Gradation meaning the distribution of particle sizes within the total range of
size. Gradation can be identified on a graph as well-graded, uniform, or gap
graded (sometimes called skip graded) which are described below :

• Well graded means sizes within the entire range are in approximately equal
amounts, although there will be a very small amount of the largest and
smallest particles.

• Uniform gradation means that a large percentage of the particles are of the
same size.

• Gap graded or skip graded means that most of the particles are large in size
or small in size with very few particles of an intermediate size.
● Objectives:
● The whole procedure of sieve analysis is to determine the particle size
distribution of the fine aggregates and determine whether it is suitable to
use in concrete mixing.
● Test Equipment
• A series of IS sieves
• 4.75 mm
• 2.36 mm
• 1.18 mm
• 600 mic
• 300 mic
• 150 mic
• 75 mic
PROPERTIES OF GOOD SAND
● It should be clean and coarse.

● It should be free from any organic or vegetable matter; usually 3-4 per cent clay is
permitted.

● It should be chemically inert. It should contain sharp, angular, coarse and durable grains.

● It should not contain salts which attract moisture from the atmosphere.

● It should be well graded, i.e., it should contain particles of various sizes in suitable
proportions.

● It should be strong and durable. It should be clean and free from coatings of clay and silt.
TIMBER

The wood which is suitable or fit

for engineering construction or
engineering purpose is called
timber.

Old English word ‘Timbrian’ which

means ‘to build’
 Properties of Timber
Colour: It should be uniform.

· Odour: It should be pleasant when cut freshly.

· Soundness: A clear ringing sound when struck indicates the timber is good.

· Texture: Texture of good timber is fine and even.

· Grains: In good timber grains are close.

· Density: Higher the density stronger is the timber.

· Hardness: Harder timbers are strong and durable.

· Warping: Good timber do not warp under changing environmental conditions.

·
Abrasion: Good timber do not deteriorate due to wear. This property should be looked into, if timber
is to be used for flooring.

Strength: Timber should have high strength in bending, shear and direct compression.

Modulus of Elasticity: Timber with higher modulus of elasticity are preferred in construction.

Fire resistance: A good timber should have high resistance to fire.

Permeability: Good timber has low water permeability.

Workability: Timber should be easily workable. It should not clog the saw.

Durability: Good timber is one which is capable of resisting the action of fungi and insects attack

Defects: Good timber is free from defects like dead knots, shakes and cracks.

Toughness: Timber should be capable of resisting shock loads.

Uses of Timber
For heavy construction works like columns, trusses, piles

For light construction works like doors, windows, flooring and roofing.

For other permanent works like for railway sleepers, fencing poles, electric poles and
gates.

For temporary works in construction like scaffolding, centering, shoring and

strutting, packing of materials.

For decorative works like showcases and furnitures.

For body works of buses, lorries, trains and boats

For industrial uses like pulps (used in making papers), card boards, wall paper

For making sports goods and musical instruments.

 CEMENT CONCRETE
Cement concrete is a mixture of cement, sand, aggregate and water which, when placed in
the Skeleton of forms and allowed to cure, become hard like a stone.

Properties of cement concrete

· It has high compressive strength

· It is free from corrosion and there is no appreciable effect of atmospheric agents

on it

Ingredients

· Cement

· Aggregates

· Water
Cement

Majority of the cement concrete work in building construction is done with ordinary Portland cement.
Other types of cement such as rapid hardening cement, high alumina cement are also used

Aggregate

The aggregate which are bound by means of cement form the bulk of cement concrete. Both fine and
coarse aggregate are used in concrete. Hard durable and clean aggregate are to be used for this. It should
be completely free from organic and vegetable matters, clay, dust etc. the presence of such impurities
prevents adhesion of aggregates and hence reduces the strength of concrete

Water

Water is the important ingredient of concrete because hydration takes place only in the presence of water.
The water which issued for making concrete should be clean and free from harmful impurities such as oil,
alkali, acids etc.in general water which is fit for drinking should be used for making concrete.
 Types of concrete
Reinforced cement concrete- concrete is weak in
carrying tensile forces. Steel reinforcing bars are
embedded in concrete to rectify this in various structural
members. This concrete in which steel rods are embedded
is called RCC. All the structural members like beams,
columns, slabs and foundations are constructed with RCC

Light weight concrete – when coarse aggregate of

lightweights are used for concrete, lightweight concrete is
obtained. It is also obtained by adding some chemical to
develop foam or gas bubbles during mixing. Bulk density
of concrete is less than 1800Kg/cm3 where as for the
ordinary concrete has 2400Kg/cm3. This concrete is used
where the dead weight of the concrete is to be reduced.
●No fines concrete – when only coarse aggregate are used in
concrete it is called no fine concrete. It resists drying
shrinking and capillary action of water. It has all advantages
of lightweight concrete. It has better insulating properties and
no problem of segregation. Used for external load bearing
walls, small retain walls and as damp proofing material
● Fibre reinforced concrete- apart from normal ingredients of
concrete it also consists of fibres in the form of asbestos,
glass, nylon or coir. The advantages are
o Crack free structure
o More durable
o Thin section can be made out of it
o More tensile and fatigue strength
Prestressed concrete- in Prestressed section, tensioned wires are used in the place of
reinforcing bars. This will induce compressive stresses in concrete, resists more tensile
stresses, there by more load can be carried by the section. It has advantage of Prestressed
concrete section is thinner and carry more loads. Used in bridges, poles, railway sleepers,
pipe, shell and folded plates. Cracks are limited in pre-stressed section
Air entrained concrete- air entrained cements or similar agents are used
for this concrete. it has high resistance against frost action and sulphate
attacks. This concrete is more workable, plastic and adhesive. No fear
of segregation
Coloured concrete – the coloured concrete is made by adding colouring
pigments or by using coloured cements uses Ornamental finishing in
building, Underground pedestrian crossing, Preparing park lanes,
Separating lines of traffic of road surface
· Vacuum concrete—the composition of vacuum concrete is same as
ordinary concrete, after laying the concrete, extra water is removed by some
arrangements called vacuum method. After this water left in concrete will be just
sufficient for hydration of cement hence concrete hardens into very strong material
Steel
● Steel is the most popular and effective building material.

● It is an alloy of iron and carbon

Structural steel section
Angle sections
Angle section consists of two legs, which are of equal or
unequal size. These sections are specified as ISA (Indian
standard angle).ISA 40x40x3 means size of two legs is
40 mm and thickness is 3mm. these are available in
sizes of from 20x20x3 to 200x200x25.
Indian standard bulb angle is another type of angle with
a bulged portion at the end of the legs.
Angle sections are used in structural steel work
especially in the fabrication of steel trusses.
Channel sections
Channel sections consists of a web with two equal flanges as shown in fig. a channel section is designated
by the height of the web and width of flanges. These sections are available in sizes varying from 100mm x
45mm to 400mm x 100mm. the specifications are

· ISJC—Indian standard junior section

· ISLC—Indian standard light channel

· ISMC—Indian standard medium channel

· ISSC—Indian standard special channel

Channel sections are widely used as structural members of the steel framed structures. These are also used
to make built up columns and truss members.
I sections
These are also known as rolled steel joists (RSJ). It consists of two flanges connected by a web. It is
designated by overall depth, width of flange and weight per metre length. Available sizes are 750 x 50 to
600 x 210 mm. the specifications are

· ISJB—Indian standard junior beam

· ISLB—Indian standard light beam

· ISMB—Indian standard medium beam

· ISWB—Indian standard wide flange beam

· ISHB—Indian standard heavy beam

These are used as beams, lintels, columns and members of steel frames. These are also used in grillage
foundation. Also used for build-up columns. It is very economical in carrying lateral loads.
T- Sections

This section has a shape of letter T and it consists of flange and web as shown in figure. It is
designated by overall dimensions and thickness. The specifications are:

ISNT—Indian standard normal tee

ISHT—Indian standard heavy Tee

ISWC—Indian standard wide Tee

ISST—Indian standard short Tee

ISMT—Indian standard medium weight Tee

These sections are widely used as members of steel roof trusses and to form built up sections.
Also used in the fabrication of water tank
Flat sections

Flat sections are plate like sections with more length and less width. These sections are available
from 3 to 40mm width

Steel plates

Steel plates are specified with its thickness.it is available in a maximum area of 30 m 2. Steel plates of
thickness 5mm to 50mm are used in the construction of industrial structures. Steel plates of thickness less
than 5 mm are called steel sheets. They are used as column bases and flanges for columns. These are also
used in plate girder bridges and gantry girders

Corrugated sheets

Corrugated sheets are formed by pressing steel sheets and corrugations are formed on the sheets.
Corrugated sheets are usually galvanized and are referred as galvanised iron sheets orGI sheets. Corrugated
sheets are used for roof covering and cladding.
● Flat sections

Steel plates

FLAT sections

Corrugated sheets
Round bars

Round bars are available in circular cross- sections with diameter

varying from 5mm to 250 mm. both solid and hollow sections are
available. Hollow sections are called pipes.

Round bars are widely used as reinforcement in concrete construction of

steel grillage works etc. The commonly used bars have diameters
varying from 5mm to 32mm

Square bars

Square bars are available in square cross section. Both solid and hollow
sections are available. Square bars are denoted with ISSQ. ISSQ12
means solid square bars with 12mm side. These bars are widely used in
the construction of steel grill works, for windows and gates.
Types of reinforcing bars

Plane steel bars

Round sections, which are made up of mild steel, medium tensile steel or
high tensile steel are used in reinforced cement concrete. But the present
trend in India is to go for tor steel bars. Plane steel bars are available from
5mm to 32mm for reinforcing purpose.

High strength deformed steel bars (tor steel bars)

These bars are cold twisted deformed bar. Tor steel bars are manufactured
as per the specifications of tor steel research foundation of India. These
bars have longitudinal ribs (small projections) in the form of continuous
helix. These are transverse ribs placed in between the longitudinal ribs.
These help to develop high bond strength due to interlocking between
concrete and steel. Yields strength of tor steel is higher than that of mild
steel. These are used for reinforced concrete work.
Advantage of tor steel bars are
· These bars have good bonding capabilities
· These can be used for major reinforcement works
· It has better structural properties
· The yield strength of these bar is high
· Substantial saving in reinforcement
cost when these bars are used
· These can be bent for 1800 without any cracks
· These bars can be welded

TMT steel bars-TMT bars or Thermo-Mechanically Treated bars are high-strength reinforcement
bars having a tough outer core and a soft inner core .

Heat treatment is a thermal process undergone by the steel in the solid state. This includes hot rolling,
micro-alloying and controlled cooling. The most common practices finishing online heat treatment while
rolling,commonly known as thermo-mechanical treatment process. Bars done through this process are
called TMT bars.