Temperature measurement

Temperature measurement

• Temperature of a substance is a measure of the hotness or coldness of

that substance. If two bodies are placed in contact then heat tends to
flow from a body at a higher temperature to a body at a lower
temperature.

• In temperature measurement one should select the most appropriate

method of temperature measurement for a particular use,
considering the points such as
-sources of error,
-limitations, precautions to be observed,
-the exact location of the sensing probe,
-the steps to check the accuracy of instruments before, during and after
the measurement.
 Temperature Scales

• At least two fixed points are required which are constant in

temperature and can be easily reproduced such as:
– the lower fixed point, or ice point (for distilled water at 760mm Hg)
– the upper fixed point, or steam point (distilled water at 760mm Hg)

• In order to graduate a thermometer between the fixed points, the

temperature interval between the fixed points(fundamental interval)
is divided into a number of equal parts. Different temperature scales
are:

• Fahrenheit and Centigrade Temperature Scales

• Kelvin and Rankine Temperature Scales
• Reaumur Scale
 Temperature measurement
• IPTS
• An international practical temperature scale(IPTS) was adopted in 1927 and
revised in 1948 by all industrialized nations to ensure accurate and uniform
temperature measurements. The fixed points, at 760mm Hg, that are used for
calibration of thermometers are:
• Boiling point
• Freezing point
• Triple point – a particular temperature and pressure at which three different
phases of one substance can exist in equilibrium. (commonly the three phases
are solid , liquid, gas, although, triple point can occur with two solid phases and
one liquid phase, with two solid phases and gas phase or with three solid
phases.)
•
• Secondary fixed points
• Freezing point of antimony : 630.74˚C
• Triple point of hydrogen : -259.34˚C
 Fahrenheit and Centigrade Temperature Scales
• The scales are based on the fact that the melting point of ice and boiling point
of water occur at fixed temperatures at standard atmospheric pressure(14.7
psi).

• The Fahrenheit scale,˚F, introduced by German Philosopher Fahrenheit,1709

• The melting point of ice is designated at 32˚F and the boiling point at 212˚F and
the temperature interval is divided into 180 equal divisions

• The Centigrade scale was introduced by Swedish astronomer, Celsius,1742

• The melting point of ice is designated as 0˚C and the boiling point at 100˚C and
the temperature interval is divided into 100 equal divisions.
• As the scales are linear, temperatures can be easily converted from one to the
other, by
• ˚C/100 = ˚F-32/180
 Kelvin, Rankine and Reaumur Temperature
Scales
• The Kelvin scale,˚K, was introduced by Lord Kelvin(1848).

• On the Kelvin temperature scale, the ice point is 273.15˚K, the steam point is 373.15˚K and
the interval is divided into 100 equal divisions. The centigrade scale can be converted into
Kelvin by using the equation, ˚K=˚C + 273.15

• The Rankine scale,˚R, with the ice point is 491.7˚R and the steam point is 671.7˚R and the
interval is divided into 180 equal divisions.

• Temperature in F can be converted into ˚R by, ˚R= ˚F + 459.69

• Kelvin scale and Rankine scales are called absolute scales as they use absolute zero as one of
their reference points.

• The Reaumur scale, ˚R’, introduced in 1731 assigns 0˚R’ to ice point and 80˚R’ to steam point.
The scale in often used in alcohol industries.
 Types of thermometers
• Expansion thermometers
• Filled system thermometers – Gas filled
thermometers, liquid filled thermometers,
mercury filled thermometers, vapour pressure
thermometers
• Electrical temperature instruments – resistance
thermometer, thermocouple, thermistor
• Pyrometer
Bimetallic Thermometers

• The differential expansion of bonded strips of two metals is utilized in bimetallic

elements.

• Two strips of metal such as invar and brass are welded together, each of them
having a different coefficient of thermal expansion.

• Whenever the welded strip is heated, the two metals expand to different lengths
as temperature rises. This forces the bimetallic strip to bend towards the side with
low coefficient of thermal expansion.
• The movement of the bimetallic strip is used to deflect a pointer over a calibrated
scale. The deflection is dependent on the length, thickness of the strip and
temperature.
 Resistance Thermometer
• With the increase of temperature, the electrical resistance of certain materials
increases in direct proportion to the rise of temperature. Resistance thermometer, also
known as RTD (Resistance Temperature Detector), utilizes this characteristic. Platinum,
copper, nickel are generally used in resistance thermometers.
•
• A temperature sensitive resistance element is fabricated in a suitable form to insert in
the medium whose temperature is to be measured and is connected by leads to a
wheatstone bridge.
• Because the relationship between resistance and temperature is stable and consistent
for the metals employed in RTD sensors, measuring the resistance across the sensing
element at any given temperature allows that temperature to be calculated with an
accuracy of 0.1 to 0.2⁰C at 0⁰C.
• The correlation is
Rt = R0 (1 + αT)
• where Rt is the resistance at temperature T (⁰C) and R0 is resistance at 0⁰C and α is the
constant for the metal termed as temperature coefficient of resistance. The sensor is
usually made to have a resistance of 100 Ω at 0 °C
 Resistance thermometer
The conductors used for resistance thermometer are

Platinum, 70Nickel/30Iron(Balco), nickel of various purities and copper.

Pt is also available as a deposited film sensor.
Nickel and Balco are available in foil type sensors.

• The bridge consists of a sensing element

resistance X and resistances A,B,C. LR1 and LR2
are lead wire resistances of sensing element.
• According to the principle of wheatstone
bridge, when the bridge is in the balanced
condition(no current in G), the ratio of
resistances is,
•
• A/B = (X+LR1+LR2)/C
•
• The ohmic values of A,B,C do not alter with
change of temperature, but X changes. So the
bridge becomes unbalanced and the
galvanometer G deflects, which can be
calibrated to give temperature.
In a 3 wire RTD configuration, Wires "A" & "B" should be close to the same length. These
lengths are significant because the intention of the Wheatstone bridge is to make the
impedances of wires A and B, each acting as an opposite leg of the bridge, cancel the other
out, leaving Wire "C" to act as a sense lead carrying a very small (microamperage range)
current.
 Resistance thermometer
• Advantages:
(i) high accuracy and linearity of measurement
(ii) wide temperature range – from -200 to 650˚C
(iii)small in size & fast in response
(iv)Good reproducibility
(v)Long life
(vi)Temperature compensation is not required.

• Disadvantages:
(i)High cost
(ii)Bridge circuit and power supply are needed
(iii)They have larger bulb size than thermocouples
(iv)Susceptible to shock and vibration.

Applications
• Measuring temperatures of materials and equipment in industrial manufacturing facilities
• Measuring air temperature in laboratories, clean rooms, and other locations
• Measuring temperature inside air ducts
• Measuring temperatures in harsh or highly pressurized environments, including plating baths
• Measuring temperatures inside ovens, stoves and food processing equipment
 Thermocouples
• The working principle of thermocouple is the thermo-electric effect.

• If two dissimilar metals are joined together so as to form a closed circuit, there will be
two junctions where they meet each other. If one of the junctions is heated/cooled,
then, a current flows in the circuit which can be detected by a galvanometer. The
amount of current produced depends on the difference in temperature between the
two junctions and on the characteristics of the two metals. This was first observed by
Seebeck in 1821 and is known as Seebeck effect.
• The reading in the meter can be converted into its corresponding temperature. The
conversion table is generally supplied by the thermocouple manufacturer.

• Types of thermocouples:
• Copper-constatan (Type T),
• iron constantan(Type J, Y),
• chromel alumel (Type K),
• platinum rhodium(Type R,S) and
• chromel constantan(Type E).
 Laws of Thermocouples

• First law
• Fig (a). It says that the net thermo-emf generated is dependent on the
materials and the temperatures of two junctions only, not on any intermediate
temperature.

• Second Law
• Fig(b). According to the second law, if a third material is introduced at any point
(thus forming two additional junctions) it will not have any effect, if these two
additional junctions remain at the same temperatures. This law makes it
possible to insert a measuring device without altering the thermo-emf.
Third Law
Fig(c). The third law is related to the calibration of the thermocouple. It says, if a
thermocouple produces emf e1, when its junctions are at T1 and T2, and e2 when its
junctions are at T2 and T3; then it will generate emf e1+e2 when the junction
temperatures are at T1 and T3 (figure c).

The third law is particularly important from the point of view of reference junction
compensation. The calibration chart of a thermocouple is prepared taking the cold or
reference junction temperature as 0 C. But in actual measuring situation, seldom the
reference junction temperature is kept at that temperature, it is normally kept at
ambient temperature. The third law helps us to compute the actual temperature using
the calibration chart.

brainkart.com
 Thermocouple
• To protect thermocouples from harmful atmospheres, corrosive fluids, protecting tubes
are supplied. These tend to reduce the speed of response of the thermocouple, so
small-mass thin-wall or needle type installations are supplied where feasible.
Disposable tip thermocouples are supplied in furnace applications.
•
• Thermocouples are not limited to single point measurement.
• -They can be connected in parallel to provide average temperature in a system. --They
can measure difference between two temperatures.
• Extension wires, also known as compensating leads must be similar to those of the
thermocouple wire it joins, otherwise, the voltage generated at the connections will be
large enough to affect the instruments’ accuracy.
 An emf chart for various thermocouples with free end at 0˚C is given.

50mV
Fe-Constantan
Cr - Al

Pt-Rd

1500C

TYPE K THERMOCOUPLE (Chromel / Alumel) Composed of a positive leg, which is

approximately 90% nickel, 10 chromium and a negative leg, which is approximately 95%
nickel, 2% aluminum, 2% manganese and 1% silicon. Due to its reliability and accuracy, Type K
is used extensively at temperatures up to 1260°C.
Constantan is an alloy of Cu(55)-Ni(45)
 Thermocouples
• Advantages:
• They are rugged in construction, simple and inexpensive.
• There is no need of bridge circuit.
• They have wide temperature range and high response speed, accuracy.
• Variety of designs for special applications
• Calibration is easy, and reproducibility is good
• Long transmission distance is possible
•
• Disadvantages:
• Limited use below 32˚C due to small change in junction voltage.
• Extension leads must be housed in metal conduits to avoid the pickup of stray electric
signals.
• They need to hold a reference junction temperature or else a compensation for deviations.
• They require amplifier and accessories for control applications.
• Temperature voltage relation is non-linear.
Thermistors – Thermally sensitive resistors
• Semiconductors made from a specific mixture of pure oxides of Ni, Mn,
Cu, Co, Fe, Mg, Ti, other metals sintered at 982˚C.
• They have high temperature coefficient, usually negative, and their
resistance is a function of absolute temperature.

• There are two types of thermistors: Negative Temperature

Coefficient (NTC) and Positive Temperature Coefficient (PTC). With
an NTC thermistor, when the temperature increases, resistance decreases.
In PTC thermistors, resistance increases with temperature rise.
• Negative type(NTC) thermistors are used when continuous resistance
change is required over wide span(-200 to 1000˚C)
• Possitive tye(PTC) thermistors are used when drastic resistance change
is required over a specific temperature level.
Thermistors
• Thermistors are available in a
number of configurations:
• Bead type( glass coated) ,
washers, discs, rods,
encapsulated in metal
tube/ceramic, cemented on
bolts,etc.
•
• These assemblies serve to
support the sensor, protect
against damage, gives uniform
flow across the unit, permit
sealing of flow lines and easy
handling.
 Thermistor -working
• The thermistor is placed in the environment whose
temperature is to be measured. As the temperature increases,
the resistance of thermistor decreases and vice versa.
• Generally the thermistor is placed as one leg of the
Wheatstone’s bridge circuit. At the balanced condition, the
galvanometer reads zero.
• As the temperature increases or decreases, the resistance of
thermistor also follows the variation due to which the bridge
becomes unbalanced. Thus an electric current flows through
the galvanometer. This deflection can be calibrated on a
temperature scale.
• For accurate measurements, a differential bridge circuit is
used with two thermistors on two legs of the bridge.
 PTC Thermistor

• PTC thermistors, have a positive temperature coefficient, wherein the

resistance increases in proportion with the temperature. These
thermistors are differentiated into two groups based on their structure
and the manufacturing process.
• The first group of thermistor comprises silistors that make use of silicon as
a semi-conductor material.
• Switching type thermistor is the second group of PTC thermistor that is
used in heaters, and also the polymer thermistors come under this group
which are made up of plastic and are often used as resettable fuses.
 Applications of PTC Thermistor

• 1. Time delay: Time delay in a circuit provides the time needed for a PTC thermistor
for sufficient heating to switch from a low-resistance state to a high-resistance state.
These applications include delayed switching relays, timers, electric fans, etc.
• 2. Motor starting: Some electrical motors have a startup winding that needs to be
powered only when the motor starts up. When the circuit is turned on, the PTC
thermistor has less amount of resistance, allowing current to pass through the
startup winding. As the motor starts, the Positive Temperature Coefficient
thermistor heats up, and – at one point, switches to a high-resistance state, and
then it terminates that winding from the mains power. The time needed for this to
occur is based on the required motor start up.
• 3. Self regulating heaters: If there is a current passing through a switching Positive
Temperature Coefficient thermistor, then it will stabilize at a certain temperature. It
means that if the temperature decreases, in proportion to the resistance, allowing
more current to flow, then the device gets heated. If the temperature increases to a
level that limits the current passing through the device, the device gets cooled.
NTC Thermistor
A thermistor with a negative
temperature coefficient means that the
resistance decreases with a rise in
temperature.
They are made from a cast chip
of semiconductor material such as a
sintered metal oxide.

• Most commonly used oxides for these thermistors are

manganese, nickel, cobalt, iron, copper and titanium. These
thermistors are classified into two groups depending upon the
method by which the electrodes are attached to the ceramic
body. They are:
• Bead type thermistors
• Metalized surface contacts
 NTC thermistor
• Bead type thermistors are made of platinum alloy, and lead wires that are
directly sintered into the ceramic body. Bead-type thermistors offer high
stability, reliability; fast response times and operates at high temperatures.
These thermistors are available in small sizes and exhibits comparatively low
dissipation constants.
• They are available as bare or glass coated beads or rods.

• The second group of thermistors has metalized surface contacts that are
made available with the radial or axial leads as well as without the leads for
mounting – by means of spring contacts. A variety of coatings are available for
these thermistors. The metalized surface contact can be applied by painting,
spraying or dipping as required and the contact is fixed into a ceramic body.
• They are available as disks, flakes, washers or chips.
Thermistor
(www.elprocus.com)

• Applications of NTC Thermistor

• 1. Surge Protection: When a NTC thermistor
is turned on, it absorbs the surge current
across the equipment and protects it by
changing its resistance.
• 2. Temperature Control and Alarm: NTC
thermistor can be used as a temperature
control system or temperature alarm system.
When the temperature increases, and the
resistance of the thermistor decreases – the
current becomes high and gives alarm or
switches the heating system on.
 Thermistor
• Advantages:
• They have small size, fast response.
• Suitable for narrow spans
• Sensor exhibits greater sensitivity as temperature drops(due to its –ve
temperature coefficient )
• Resistance is a function of absolute temperature, so compensation is not
necessary.
• Lead wire resistance is negligible compared to sensor resistance
• Stability of the instrument increases with age.
•

• Disadvantage:
• Non-linear characteristics
• Unsuitable for wide spans
• Problem of interchangeability of individual elements
• High resistance of the element requires shielded power lines, filters, dc voltage.
 Comparison of temperature transducer

ametherm.com omega.co.uk

1kΩ

50mV

1200C
 Ref
• Industrial instrumentation and control, SK
Singh, Tata McGraw Hill Pub. Co. Ltd. New
Delhi 2009
• https://www.elprocus.com
• https://www.jms-se.com/rtd.php
• https://
www.slideshare.net/ImranKhan841/instrumen
tation-control-process