The Central Nervous System

Sunday, March 31, 2024 1
The Nervous System
Peripheral Nervous System

NERVOUS SYSTEM
A. The nervous system is divided into two parts:
1. Central Nervous System (CNS) – brain and spinal cord
2. Peripheral Nervous System (PNS) – peripheral nerves through the
body - includes 31 pairs of spinal nerves and 12 pairs of cranial
nerves
B. Three Basic Functions
3. Sensory Function – gathers info about changes occurring within and
around the body - Sensory receptors, at ends of peripheral nerves
send signals (nerve impulses) to the CNS. Sensory Neuron
4. Integrative Function – information is “brought together,”
interpreted, to create sensations, create thoughts, add to memory,
make decisions, etc. Association neuron or interneuron
5. Motor Function – responses to signals (impulses). Signals sent from
the CNS to effectors (muscles or glands). The goal is usually to
maintain stable conditions (especially internal) – Homeostasis. 3
Sunday, March 31, 2024
.
• Motor neurons. –
Somatic Nervous System (skeletal muscles)
Autonomic Nervous System (smooth muscles,
cardiac muscle & glands)

Neurons:
C. Nerve cells. Unique structure – cell body with
many extensions or processes (nerve “fibers”)
which conduct impulses. There are two types
of processes:
1. Dendrites – shorter, more numerous. These,
along with the cell body, form the receptive
surfaces of neurons.
2. Axons – single, long “fiber” which conducts
impulse away from the cell body. Sometimes
it is “branched” (collaterals). End has many
fine branches.
.
D. Neuroglial Cells (neuroglia) – supportive tissue of the nervous

system (more numerous than neurons).
Five types
1. Microglial Cells- are the resident macrophage cells, acts as the
first and main form of active immune defense in the CNS
2. Oligodendrocytes- provides support and insulation to axons in
the CNS by creating the myelin sheath
3. Astrocytes- are star shaped and the most abundant glial cells in
the brain. They regulate the transmission of electrical impulses
within the brain
4. Ependymal Cells- they line the CSF-filled ventricles in the brain
& central canal of the SC and function to produce CSF
5. Schwann cells- forms the myelin sheath in the myelinated axons
6. Neuro satellite cells- they supply oxygen & nutrients to
neurons
E. Neuron Structure

F. Classification of Neurons
1. Functional (sensory neurons, motor neurons,
interneurons)
2. Structural (multipolar, bipolar, unipolar)
G. Nerve – bundle of nerve fibers

.

H. Nerve impulse
Is weak electric current.
• A series of action potentials along a nerve fiber.
1. Neuron membrane maintains resting potential
2. Threshold stimulus is received
3. Sodium channels open
4. Sodium ions diffuse inward, depolarizing the membrane
5. Potassium channels open
6. Potassium ions diffuse outward, depolarizing the membrane
7. The resulting action potential causes a local bioelectric
current that stimulates adjacent portions of the membrane.
8. Wave of action potentials travel the length of the axon as a
nerve impulse
The Central Nervous System: The Brain
• We can divide the brain into six parts in terms
of physiological functions:
1. Cerebrum;
2. Hypothalamus;
3. Midbrain;
4. Cerebellum;
5. Pons; and
6. Medulla oblongata
1. Cerebrum
• This is the most developed area of brain in
the human species and is considered to be
the center of the highest functions.
• It is the largest division of the brain. It is
divided into two hemispheres (Right/Left),
each of which is divided into four lobes.
• Cerebral Cortex -The outermost layer of gray
matter making up the superficial aspect of
the cerebrum.

Cerebral Features
•Sulci– Small grooves dividing the gyri
–Central Sulcus–Divides the Frontal Lobe from the Parietal Lobe
•Fissures– Deep grooves, generally dividing large regions/lobes of the

brain
–Longitudinal Fissure–Divides the two Cerebral Hemispheres
–Transverse Fissure–Separates the Cerebrum from the Cerebellum
–Sylvian/Lateral Fissure–Divides the Temporal Lobe from the Frontal

and Parietal Lobes
•Gyri– Elevated ridges “winding” around the brain

CEREBRAL HEMISPHERES
Cerebrum…
• The major functions include: awareness of
sensory perception; voluntary control of
movement (regulation of skeletal muscle
movement); language; personality traits;
sophisticated mental activities such as
thinking, memory, decision making, predictive
ability, creativity and self-consciousness.
• The cerebrum have four lobes; frontal,
parietal, temporal and occipital lobes

The Frontal Lobe
The Frontal Lobe of the brain is located deep to the Frontal Bone of the
skull.
•It plays an integral role in the following functions/actions:
-Memory Formation
-Emotions
-Decision
-Motor speech
-Making/Reasoning
Personality
• Concerned with higher intellectual functions and is involved in the
many behavioral aspects of humans.
• The Primary motor cortex controls the movement of the rest of the
body while the premotor cortex just adjacent to it is concerned with
the initiation, activation, and performance of the actual movement.
Frontal Lobe -Cortical Regions
• Orbitofrontal Cortex–Site of Frontal Lobotomies
• Primary Motor Cortex (Precentral Gyrus)–Cortical site involved

with controlling movements of the body.
• Broca’s Area–Controls facial neurons, speech, and language

comprehension. Located on Left frontal Lobe.
• Broca’s Aphasia–Results in the ability to comprehend speech,

but the decreased motor ability (or inability) to speak and form
words.
• Olfactory Bulb-Cranial Nerve I (olfactory), responsible for

sensation of smell
Parietal Lobe
•The Parietal Lobe of the brain is located deep to

the Parietal Bone of the skull.
•It plays a major role in the following

functions/actions:
-Senses and integrates sensation(s)
-Spatial awareness and perception(Proprioception
awareness of body/ body parts in space and in
relation to each other)
The Parietal Lobe….
• This lobe is primarily concerned with the
interpretation and integration of sensory
inputs.
• The Somatosensory cortex is associated with
reception and perception of touch, vibration,
and position sense of the body.

Parietal Lobe -Cortical Regions
•Primary Somatosensory Cortex (Postcentral
Gyrus)–Site involved with processing of tactile
and proprioceptive information.
•Somatosensory Association Cortex -Assists with

the integration and interpretation of sensations
relative to body position and orientation in
space. May assist with visuo-motor coordination.
•Primary Gustatory Cortex–Primary site involved

with the interpretation of the sensation of Taste.
Occipital Lobe
•The Occipital Lobe of the Brain is located deep

to the Occipital Bone of the Skull.
• This lobe contains the primary visual cortex for
visual information interpretation.
•Its primary function is the processing,
integration, interpretation, etc. of VISION and
visual stimuli.

Occipital Lobe- Cortical Regions
• Primary Visual Cortex–This is the primary area

of the brain responsible for sight -recognition
of size, color, light, motion, dimensions, etc.
• Visual Association Area–Interprets

information acquired through the primary
visual cortex.

Temporal Lobe
•The Temporal Lobes are located on the sides of
the brain, deep to the temporal bones of the
skull.
•They play an integral role in the following
functions:
-Hearing
-Organization/Comprehension of language
-Information Retrieval (Memory and Memory
Formation)

Temporal Lobe –Cortical Regions
•Primary Auditory Cortex–Responsible for hearing,
reception and interpretation of sound information
•Primary Olfactory Cortex–Interprets the sense of smell
once it reaches the cortex via the olfactory bulbs.
•Wernicke’s Area (language cortex)– for language
comprehension. Located on the left temporal lobe in
the left hemisphere and participates in recognition and
interpretation of language.
-Wernicke’s Aphasia–Language comprehension is
inhibited. Words and sentences are not clearly
understood, and sentence formation may be inhibited
or non-sensical.
FUNCTIONAL LOCALIZATION
The Limbic system
• The Limbic system is a group of structures on the medial
aspect of each hemisphere and diencephalon and is more
a functional system than an anatomical one.
• The limbic system is the "emotional brain", participating
in the creation of emotional states such as fear, anger,
pleasure, affection, arousal, etc. and processing vivid
memories associated with those states.
• For example, the amygdala is central for processing fear
and stimulates a sympathetic response. The amygdala
enables us to recognize menacing facial expressions in
others and to detect the precise gaze of someone who is
looking at us.

2. Epithalamus, Thalamus and Hypothalamus
• The epithalamus contains the pineal gland, a

hormone secreting endocrine structure.
• Under the influence of the hypothalamus,
the pineal gland secretes the hormone
melatonin, which prepares the body for the
night-time stage of the sleep/wake cycle.
• The thalamus makes up about 80% of the
diencephalon and is the main relay center for
the various sensory and motor functions.

The Hypothalamus
• The Hypothalamus controls and regulates
many important functions of the body,
including:
1) Control of the Autonomic Nervous System -
adjusts, coordinates, and integrates the A.N.S.
centers in the brain that regulate heart rate,
blood pressure, bronchiole diameter, sweat
glands, G.I. tract activity, etc. It does this via
the Parasympathetic and Sympathetic
divisions of the A.N.S.

Hypothalamus…
2) Control of Emotional Responses - in association with
the limbic system, it forms part of the emotional brain.
Regions involved in fear, pleasure, rage and sex drive
are located in the hypothalamus.
3) Regulation of Body Temperature - the body's
thermostat and set point is located in the
hypothalamus. There are also 2 centers in the
hypothalamus that respond to changes in the set point.
• Heat-losing center: activation of this center causes
sweating and cutaneous vasodilatation.
• Heat-promoting center: activation of this center causes
shivering and cutaneous vasoconstriction.
.
4) Regulation of Hunger and Thirst Sensations -

hypothalamus contains the feeding and thirst
centers.
• Feeding center: this center is always active
and stimulates hunger which is 'fed' by eating.
• Satiety center: stimulated when satisfied, this
inhibits the always hungry feeding center.
• Thirst center: osmoreceptors detect changes
in osmotic pressure of blood, ECF, stimulate
thirst.

.
• 5) Control of the Endocrine System - controls the
release of pituitary hormones.
• Controls the anterior pituitary gland, when the
hypothalamus releases hormones, it can
stimulate or inhibit the release of other
hormones form the pituitary.
• Also, it makes the 2 hormones (oxytocin and
antidiuretic hormone (ADH)) that are stored in
the posterior pituitary and released when
signaled.
• All of these hormones regulate many other
organs in the body.
3. Midbrain
• Midbrain Portions receive visual input,
auditory input from the medulla oblongata
and are involved in cranial reflexes, e.g., when
you turn your head if you thought you heard
your name called out.

4. The Cerebellum
• Cerebellum - Means “little brain”. The Cerebellum
has two primary functions:
1) Controls postural reflexes of muscles in body - i.e.,
it coordinates rapid, automatic adjustments to
maintain equilibrium, e.g. regaining your balance
when you start to fall.
2) Produces skilled movements - involved in
implementing routines for fine tuned movements.
Controlled at the conscious and subconscious level,
refines learned routines (e.g. driving, skating,
playing an instrument) until the action becomes
routine.
.
• This then reduces the need for conscious attention to
the task.
• The cerebellum gets incoming information from
proprioceptors, a type of sensory receptor found in
movable joints, tendons and muscle tissue.
• Using the information from proprioceptors in the
body, the cerebellum can determine the relative
position of various body parts and compares motor
commands and intended movements with the actual
position of the body part (legs, arms).
• In this way, it can perform any adjustments needed
to changes the direction or make the movement
(action) smooth and coordinated.
5. The Pons
• Pons - Plays a role in the regulation of the
respiratory system.
• Contains two “pontine” respiratory centers:
1) the pneumotaxic center and
2) the apneustic center.
• The pons is not responsible for the rhythm of
breathing (the medulla oblongata is) but controls
the changes in depth of breathing and the fine
tuning of the rhythm of breathing set by the
medulla oblongata.
• The pons also prevents over inflation of the lungs.

6. Medulla Oblongata
• The medulla oblongata is the last division of the brain.
• It becomes continuous with the spinal cord.
• It houses some very important visceral or vital centers;
1) The cardiac center - adjusts the force and rate of the
heartbeat
2) The vasomotor center - regulates the diameter of blood
vessels and therefore systemic blood pressure
(constriction increases and dilation decrease blood
pressure); and
3) The respiratory center - for control of the basic rhythm
and rate of breathing. Additional centers regulate
sneezing, coughing, hiccupping, swallowing and
vomiting.
HOMUNCULUS REPRESENTATION
BLOOD SUPPLY
The spinal cord
• The basic structure of the spinal cord is that it

is the downward continuation of medulla
oblongata starting at the foramen magnum.
• It descends to about the level of the second
lumbar vertebra, tapering to a structure called
the conus medullaris.

The spinal Cord…
• The cord projects 31 pairs of spinal nerves on
either side (8 cervical, 12 thoracic, 5 lumbar, 5
sacral and 1 coccygeal) that are connected to the
peripheral nerves.
• A cross section of the spinal cord exhibits the
butterfly-shaped grey matter in the middle,
surrounded by white matter.
• As in the cerebrum, the grey matter is composed
of nerve cell bodies.
• The white matter consists of various ascending
and descending tracts of myelinated axon fibers
with specific functions.
SPINAL CORD
.
• The spinal cord serves as a passageway for the
ascending (going up) and descending (going
down) fiber tracts that connect the peripheral
and spinal nerves with the brain.
• Each of the 31 spinal segments is associated
with a pair of dorsal root ganglia.
• These contain sensory nerve cell bodies.
• The axons from these sensory neurons enter
the posterior aspect of the spinal cord via the
dorsal root.

• The axons from somatic and visceral motor
neurons leave the anterior aspect of the spinal
cord via the ventral roots.
• Distal to each dorsal root ganglion the
sensory and motor fibers combine to form a
spinal nerve - these nerves are classified as
mixed nerves because they contain both
afferent (sensory) and efferent (motor) fibers.

CLINICAL APPLICATION
The Cranial and Spinal Meninges
• The delicate neural tissue of the brain and

spinal cord is not only protected by the bones
of the skull and vertebral column but also by
layers of specialized membranes, called cranial
and spinal meninges.
• There are the 3 layers (from outer most to
inner most) and the spaces they create. Bone;
Epidural space; Dura mater; Subdural space;
Arachnoid layer; Subarachnoid space; Pia
mater and Nervous tissue.
MENINGES
Meninges……
• The innermost layer (pia mater) tightly covers
the brain itself, conforming to its grooves and
folds
• This layer is rich in blood vessels that descend
in to the brain
• Outside the pia mater is the arachnoid mater
which is a thin web-like layer.
• Between the pia mater and the arachnoid
mater is a space called subarachnoid space,
which contains the CSF
Meninges….
• This space is where major arteries supplying the
brain lie. If a blood vessel ruptures in this space,
it causes subarachnoid haematoma or
haemorrhage
• The outermost meningeal layer is the dura mater
which lines the interior of the skull
• The dura mater is composed of two individual
layers- the meningeal dura and the periosteal
dura, but these layers are fused

Meninges….
• Between the arachnoid mater and the dura
mater is the subdural space. If bleeding occurs
in the space underneath the dura mater is
called sub-dural haematoma
• If the bleeding occurs outside the dura mater,
but underneath the skull, it is called epidural
haematoma

Cerebrospinal Fluid & Ventricles
• The brain is bathed in cerebrospinal fluid (CSF) which
is continuously produced and absorbed
• The ventricles are the CSF-containing cavities within
the brain
• The structures that produce CSF are contained
within the ventricles and are called choroid plexuses
• Cerebrospinal fluid (CSF) flows within the ventricles
of the brain, the central canal of the spinal cord and
out to the subarachnoid spaces surrounding the
brain and spinal cord.

CSF & Ventricles….
• It serves as a medium for the transfer of substances
between the blood and the nervous tissues as well as
a liquid buffer, absorbing mechanical shocks to the
brain or the cord.
• Most of CSF is provided by the choroid plexuses that
reside in lateral, third and fourth ventricles.
• In adults, the total volume of this fluid has been
calculated to be from 125 to 150 ml.
• It is continuously formed, circulated and absorbed.
Approximately 450 ml of CSF are produced every day,
or 0.35 ml per minute in adults and 0.15 per minute in
infants.
CSF & Ventricles…
• CSF is produced at a rate of about 450Ml/day,
although at any given time about 150Ml of CSF
can be found within the CSF spaces
• The brain has four ventricles. Within the cerebral
hemispheres are the lateral ventricles, which are
connected to each other and to the third
ventricle through a pathway called
interventricular foramen of Monro
• The third ventricle lies in the midline, separating
deeper brain structures such as the left and right
thalami
CSF & Ventricles…
• The third ventricle communicates with the fourth
ventricle through the cerebral aqueduct of Sylvius
• From the fourth ventricle, CSF flows into the
subarachnoid space around both the brain and
spinal cord
• From the subarachnoid space, CSF is then
absorbed into the venous system
• Arachnoid granulations or villi are structures
projecting into the superior sagittal sinus that
release CSF back into the venous system

Roles of CSF
 Cushions and insulates delicate nervous
tissues
 Gives Buoyancy to the brain (“floats” in CSF).
 Exchange of gases (O₂ and CO₂), nutrients and

wastes.

Embryological Development

The Ventricular System
• The cerebral ventricular system consists of a series of
interconnecting spaces and channels within the brain.
• They are derived from the central lumen of the
embryonic neural tube and the cerebral vesicles to
which it gives rise .
• Within each cerebral hemisphere lies a large C-
shaped lateral ventricle .
• They communicates through the interventricular
foramen with the third ventricle, which is a midline,
slit-like cavity lying between the right and left halves
of the thalamus.

VENTRICULAR SYSTEM
VENTRICULAR SYSTEM
.
• Caudally, the third ventricle is continuous with
the cerebral aqueduct, a narrow tube that
passes the length of the midbrain, and which
is continuous in turn with the fourth ventricle,
a wide tent-shaped cavity lying between the
brain stem and cerebellum.
•Caudally, the fourth ventricle is continuous

with the vestigial central canal of the spinal
cord.

.
• The ventricular system contains cerebrospinal
fluid (CSF), which is mostly secreted by the
choroid plexuses located within the lateral,
third and fourth ventricles.
•CSF flows from the lateral to the third
ventricle, through the cerebral aqueduct and
into the fourth ventricle.
• It leaves the fourth ventricle through three
apertures to reach the subarachnoid space
surrounding the brain.

CHOROID PLEXUS
.
• The CSF circulates throughout the base of the
brain, down around the spinal cord as well as
upward over the cerebral hemispheres.
• The CSF is then absorbed primarily through

arachnoid villi into the superior sagittal sinus
and re-joins the blood circulation.

Fourth ventricle:
• The fourth ventricle lies between the brain

stem and the cerebellum.
• Rostrally it is continuous with the cerebral
aqueduct, and caudally with the central canal
of the spinal cord.
• In sagittal section, the fourth ventricle has a
characteristic triangular profile, and the apex
of its tented roof protrudes into the inferior
aspect of the cerebellum.

Applied Anatomy….
• The obstruction of the normal CSF flow or
overproduction of CSF from a choroid plexus
papilloma (a benign tumor of the choroid
plexus) can lead to a condition known as
hydrocephalus - an excessive accumulation of
CSF in the ventricles or in the subarachnoid
space

Applied Anatomy
• Hydrocephalus is a condition in which
production of CSF is disproportionate to
absorption
• This is most commonly caused by impaired
absorption leading resulting from obstruction
of the CSF circulating pathways termed as
obstructive hydrocephalus
• Hydrocephalus may also occur when the
absorption of CSF is impaired termed as
communicating hydrocephalus
Applied Anatomy….
• Rarely, hydrocephalus is caused by increased
CSF production
• In newborns it results in an enlarged cranium,
as the young skull bones are not yet fused and
the infant cranial cavity can expand.
• In adults, however, it is typically accompanied
by serious increase in intracranial pressure
(ICP).

Hydrocephalus
•Excessive amount of CSF

•Due to:
–Overproduction of CSF
–Blockage of CSF flow
–Decreased absorption from arachnoid
granulations into dural sinuses


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Sunday, March 31, 2024 1

The Nervous System

Peripheral Nervous System

Sunday, March 31, 2024 2

Sunday, March 31, 2024 5

D. Neuroglial Cells (neuroglia) – supportive tissue of the nervous

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G. Nerve – bundle of nerve fibers

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•Sulci– Small grooves dividing the gyri

–Central Sulcus–Divides the Frontal Lobe from the Parietal Lobe

•Fissures– Deep grooves, generally dividing large regions/lobes of the

–Longitudinal Fissure–Divides the two Cerebral Hemispheres

–Transverse Fissure–Separates the Cerebrum from the Cerebellum

–Sylvian/Lateral Fissure–Divides the Temporal Lobe from the Frontal

•Gyri– Elevated ridges “winding” around the brain

Sunday, March 31, 2024 17

• Primary Motor Cortex (Precentral Gyrus)–Cortical site involved

• Broca’s Area–Controls facial neurons, speech, and language

• Broca’s Aphasia–Results in the ability to comprehend speech,

• Olfactory Bulb-Cranial Nerve I (olfactory), responsible for

•The Parietal Lobe of the brain is located deep to

•It plays a major role in the following

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•Somatosensory Association Cortex -Assists with

•Primary Gustatory Cortex–Primary site involved

•The Occipital Lobe of the Brain is located deep

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• Primary Visual Cortex–This is the primary area

• Visual Association Area–Interprets

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• The epithalamus contains the pineal gland, a

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4) Regulation of Hunger and Thirst Sensations -

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• The basic structure of the spinal cord is that it

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• The delicate neural tissue of the brain and

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 Gives Buoyancy to the brain (“floats” in CSF).

 Exchange of gases (O₂ and CO₂), nutrients and

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•Caudally, the fourth ventricle is continuous

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