5th ch02 (範例修正)

Manufacturing Processes
for Engineering Materials

(5th Edition in SI Units)
Chapter 2: Fundamentals of the
Mechanical Behaviour of Materials
Chapter 2: Fundamentals of Mechanical Behavior of Materials

Manufacturing Processes for Engineering Materials
© 2008 Pearson Education South Asia Pte Ltd
Tension
• Tension test is the most common test for determining
the strength-deformation characteristics of materials.
• There are 3 types of strain: (a) tensile, (b) compressive
and (c) shear.

Tension
• The engineering stress, or
nominal stress, is defined as
the ratio of applied load to
original area of the specimen,
P

A0

Tension
• The modulus of elasticity, or Young’s modulus, E, is
defined as 
E
e
• This linear relationship between stress and strain is
known as Hooke’s law.
• The absolute value of the ratio of the lateral strain to
longitudinal strain is known as Poisson’s ratio, v.

Tension
• Area under stress–strain curve up to the yield point, Y, of
the material is known as the modulus of resilience,
Ye 0 Y 2
Modulus of resilience  
• Area has the units of energy per unit volume. 2 2E
• When specimen is unloaded from a
stress level higher than Y,
the curve follows a straight line
downward and parallel to the
original elastic slope.

Tension
• When a specimen is loaded beyond Ultimate Tensile
Strength (UTS), it begins to neck and elongation between
the gage marks is no longer uniform.
• As the test progresses, the engineering stress drops
further and cause fracture, known as breaking or
fracture stress.

Ductility
• 2 quantities commonly used to define ductility in a
tension test are known as elongation and reduction of
area.
• Elongation is defined as
l f  l0
Elongation   100
l0
• A second measure of ductility is known as a reduction of
area, defined as
A0  A f
Reduction of area  100
A0
True stress and true strain
• Similar to stress definition, true stress is defined as
P

A
where A is the actual area supporting the load
• True strain is defined as
l
dl l
    ln 
l
l  l0  0

True stress and true strain
• Since volume remains constant in the plastic region of the
test, true strain can be expressed as
2
l  A0   D0   D0 
  ln   ln   ln   2 ln 
 l0   A D D
• From above, the largest strain is at the narrowest region

of the neck.

True stress–true strain curves
• A typical true stress–true strain curve is typically
approximated by the equation
  K n
• Note that is always positive and that the slope decreases
with increasing strain.
Y  Yield Stress
Yf  flow stress
K  strength coefficient

True stress–true strain curves
• The area under the true stress–true strain curve is known
as toughness,
f
Toughness    d
0
where εf is the true strain at fracture.
• Toughness is the energy per unit volume (specific energy)

dissipated up to the point of fracture.

Instability in Tension
• We have the following relationship:
 A0 
  ln , A  A0 e  , and P  A  A0 e 
 A
 d
dP d

d d


A0 e  A0   
 e  
 d 
• Because dP = 0 at the UTS where necking begins,

d

d
• However since   K,n we have  n

Example 2.1
Calculation of ultimate tensile strength
A material has a true stress–true strain curve given by
  689,475.73 0.5 kPa
Calculate the true ultimate tensile strength and the engineering

UTS of this material.
Solution
Since the necking strain corresponds to the maximum load and
the necking strain for this material is given as
  n  0.5

Example 2.1
Solution
We have as the true ultimate tensile strength,
  Kn n
UTS true  689,475.730.5  487,532.96 kPa
0.5
The cross-sectional area at the onset of necking is obtained

from
 A0 
ln   n  0.5
 Aneck 
Consequently,
Aneck  A0e 0.5
Example 2.1
Solution
The maximum load P is
P  A  A0 e 0.5
where δ is the true ultimate tensile strength.

Hence,
P   487,532.96  0.606   A0   295,444.97 A0
Since
P
UTSengineering   UTSengineering  295,444.97 kPa
A0

Types of stress–strain curves
• Curves with associated stress–strain equations have the
following characteristics:
a. Perfectly elastic
b. Rigid and perfectly plastic
c. Elastic and perfectly plastic
d. Rid and linearly strain-hardening
e. Elastic and linearly strain-hardening

Effects of temperature
• Increasing temperature:
 lowers the modulus of elasticity, yield stress, and
ultimate tensile strength
 increases ductility and toughness
 n also decreases

Effects of strain rate
• Typical deformation speeds and strain rates occurs in
various metalworking processes.
• The engineering strain rate and true strain rate is defined
as
 l  l0 
d  
de l 1 dl v
e    0  
dt dt l0 dt l0
  l 
d ln 
d   l0  1 dl v
    
dt dt l dt l
Effects of strain rate
• The effect of strain rate on the strength of materials is
generally expressed by
  C m
where
C  strength coefficient
m  strain-rate sensitivity exponent

Effects of hydrostatic pressure
• Effects of high hydrostatic pressure on the behaviour of
materials:
• Increases the strain at fracture
• no effect on true stress–true strain curve
• no effect on maximum load at necking
• no effect on mechanical properties

Compression
• The engineering and true strain rate in compression is
given by
v v
e   e  
h0 h
where v = speed of the die

ho = original height
h = instantaneous height

Plane-strain compression test
• Designed to simulate bulk-deformation processes.
• Yield stress according to the distortion-energy yield
criterion is given by
2
Y ' Y  1.15Y
3
• For ductile metals, results for both compression and
tension tests will coincide.

Bauschinger effect
• When a metal is subjected to tension into the plastic
range and released, yield stress in compression is lower
than in tension.
• This phenomenon is known as the Bauschinger effect.

The disk test
• A disk test is when a disk is subjected to diametral
compression between two hardened flat platens.
• The tensile stress in the disk can be calculated from the
formula
2P

dt
where P = load at fracture

d = diameter of the disk
t = thickness

Torsion
• A torsion test is when uniform stress and strain is
applied in tubular specimen with a reduced mid-section.
• The shear stress can be determined from
T

2r 2t
where T = torque applied
r = mean radius
t = thickness

Torsion
• The shear strain is determined from the equation
r where l = length of the reduced section
 Φ = angle of twist in radians
l
• Shear modulus or modulus of rigidity is defined as

G
•  modulus are related
Shear and elasticity
E Based on a comparison of
G
21  v  simple shear and pure shear strains.

Example 2.2
Instability in torsion of a thin-walled tube
Show that necking cannot take place in the torsion of a thin-
walled tube made of a material whose true stress–true strain
curve is given by   K
n
Solution
The expression for torque T is given by T  2r 2t

For the distortion-energy criterion,   , the criterion for
3
instability in torsion would be
dT
0
d
Example 2.2
Instability in torsion of a thin-walled tube
Solution
Because r and t are constant, we have
dT  2  2 d
 r 
d  3  d
d
For a material represented by   K n   nK n 1
d
dT  2  2
Therefore,  r nK n 1
d  3 
Since none of the quantities in this expression are zero, thus a

tube in torsion does not undergo instability.

Bending
• Bend (flexure) test involves a specimen with rectangular
cross section and supported at both ends.
• The stress at fracture in bending is known as the
modulus of rupture, or transverse rupture strength.
Mc where M = bending moment

 c = one-half of the specimen depth
I
I = moment of inertia of the cross section

Hardness
• The most common standardized hardness tests are as
follows.

Brinell test
• The Brinell hardness number (HB) is defined as the ratio
of the load P to the curved area of indentation.
2P
HB 
D D  D2  d 2 
where D = diameter of the ball
d = diameter of the impression (mm)
P = load (kg)
• Brinelling is a term used to describe permanent
indentations on a surface between contacting bodies.

Rockwell test
• In the Rockwell test, the depth of penetration is
measured.
• The difference in the depth of penetration is a measure
of the hardness.

Vickers test
• Vickers test uses a pyramid-shaped diamond indenter
with loads ranging from 1 to 120 kg.
• The Vickers hardness number (HV) is defined as
1.854 P
HV 
L2

Example 2.3
Calculation of modulus of resilience from hardness
A piece of steel is highly deformed at room temperature. Its

hardness is found to be 300 HB. Estimate the modulus of
resilience for this material.
Solution
At room temperature it assumes a stress-strain curve that
approaches the shape of a perfectly plastic curve. Using a
value of c = 3, Y
300
 1e8 kg/m 2
3
From Table E = 200 GPa for steel,
Modulus of resilience 
1e 
8 2
 25e 5 N - m/m 3
2  2e11
Fatigue
• Failure occurring under static loading is known as
fatigue failure.
• Fatigue tests usually in a combination of tension and
compression, or torsion.
• Maximum stress which material is subjected without
fatigue failure, regardless of the number of cycles, is
known as the endurance limit or fatigue limit.

Creep
• Creep is the permanent elongation of a material under a
static load maintained for a period of time.
• Creep test is where the specimen is subjected to
constant tensile load at certain temperature and
measuring the change in length over a period of time.
• A typical creep curve usually consists of primary,
secondary, and tertiary stages.

Impact
• Impact test consists of placing a notched specimen in an
impact tester and breaking it with a swinging pendulum.
• Charpy test consists of the specimen being supported at
both ends.
• lzod test consists of it being supported at one end.
• Energy dissipated in breaking the specimen is the
impact toughness of the material.
Charpy test
Manufacturing Processes for Engineering Materials Lzod test
Residual Stresses
• Residual stresses are stresses that remain after the
product has been deformed.
• Example of inhomogeneous deformation is the bending
of a beam.

Effects of residual stresses
• A surface with tensile residual stresses will sustain lower
additional tensile stresses than a surface that is free
from residual stresses.
• Tensile residual stresses can lead to stress cracking or
stress-corrosion cracking over a period of time.

Reduction of residual stresses
• Residual stresses may be reduced by stress-relief
annealing or through further plastic deformation.
• Reducing residual stresses by plastic deformation is to
establish a uniformly distributed stress within the part.

Example 2.4
Elimination of residual stresses by tension
The material is aluminum and the length of the specimen is 0.25 m. Calculate the
length to which this specimen should be stretched so that, when unloaded, it will be
free from residual stresses. Assume that the yield stress of the material is 150 MPa,
σt = 140 MPa and σc = -140 MPa.
Solution
Total strain should be equal, thus
c Y 140 150
 total      0.00414
E E 70 10 70 10
3 3
Stretched length is
 lf 
ln   0.00414 or l f  0.2510 m
 0.25 
Triaxial Stresses and Yield Criteria
• Operations involving deformation processing is
generally subjected to tri-axial stresses.
• Elastic range, the strains in the elements are
represented by the Hooke’s law equations:
1 1 1
1   1  v 2   3  2   2  v 1   3  3   3  v 1   2 
E E E
• For simple tension where  2   3 , 0

1 1
1  2  3  v
E E
• Negative sign shows contraction of the element.
Maximum-shear-stress criterion
• The maximum-shear-stress criterion or Tresca criterion
is when yielding occurs when the max shear stress
within an element is equal to/exceeds a critical value.
• Critical value of the shear stress is a max k
material property
and is called shear yield stress, k.
• Principal stresses and their directions can be found from
Mohr’s circle or stress-transformation equations.
• Maximum-shear-stress criterion states that
 max   min  Y
Distortion-energy criterion
• Distortion-energy criterion or von Mises criterion
states that yielding occurs when
 1   2 2   2   3 2   3   1 2  2Y 2
• Note that the intermediate principal stress is included in
this expression.

Example 2.5
Yielding of a thin-walled shell
A thin-walled spherical shell is under internal pressure, p. The shell is 50.8 cm in
diameter and 0.254 cm thick. It is made of a perfectly plastic material with a yield
stress of 137.895 MPa. Calculate the pressure required to cause yielding of the
shell according to both yield criteria.
Solution
Under internal pressure the membrane stresses are given by
pr
1   2 
2t
According to the maximum-shear-stress criterion,
 max   min  Y
  1  0  Y and  2  0  Y

Example 2.5
Yielding of a thin-walled shell
Solution
Hence,  1   2  137.895 MPa
20.254137.895
The pressure required is then p   2.7579 MPa
25.4
According to the distortion-energy criterion,

 1   2 2   2   3 2   3   1 2  2Y 2
0   22   12  2Y 2
 1   2  Y
Therefore, p = 2.7579 MPa.

Example 2.6
Correction factor for true stress–true strain curves
Explain why a correction factor has to be applied in the construction of a true

stress–true strain curve, based on tensile-test data.
Solution
The neck of a specimen is subjected to a triaxial state of
stress. A correction has to be made for true uniaxial stress in
tension and average stress.
P.W. Bridgman gives the ratio of true stress to

average stress as  1

 avg  2 R   a 
 1    1  
 a   2 R 
Plane stress and plane strain
• Plane stress is the state of stress in which faces on an
elemental cube are free from stress.
• Plane strain is the state of stress where faces on an
element undergoes zero strain.
• Plane stress condition (σ2 = 0) can be represented by the
maximum-shear-stress and distortion-energy criteria
diagram.

Plane stress
• The distortion-energy criterion for plane stress reduces
to  12  .32   1 3  Y 2
• When plastic deformation, the stress–strain
relationships are obtained from flow rules.
d  1 
d 1       
  
1 2 3
2
d  1 
d 2       
 
2 1 3 
2 
d  1 
d 3       
 
3 1 2 
2 
Plane strain
• For the plane-strain condition,  2 , 0
1   3
thus  2 
2
• For plane-strain compression, the distortion energy

criterion reduces to 1   3 
2
Y  1.15Y  Y '
3

Volume strain
• Summing the 3 equations of the Hooke’s law, the left
hand side is volume strain or dilatation, Δ.
1  2v
  1   2   3   1   2   3 
E
• In the plastic range, v = 0.5  Δ=0 .

• In the elastic range, 0 < v < 0.5.
• Bulk modulus is defined as
m E
Bulk modulus  
 31  2v 
1
m   1   2   3 
3
Work of Deformation
• Work is defined as the product of collinear force and
distance.  1
u    d
• Work is calculated from 0
• True stress–true strain is expressed as   K n

• Thus, 
K 1n 1
1
n
u  K   d   Y1
0
n 1
• For work expended, we have
Work  u Volume 

Example 2.7
Expansion of a thin-walled spherical shell
A thin-walled spherical shell made of a perfectly plastic material of yield stress, Y,
original radius, ro, and thickness, to, is being expanded by internal pressure.
(a) Calculate the work done in expanding this shell to a radius of rf.
(b) If the diameter expands at a constant rate, what changes take place in the power
consumed as the radius increases?
Solution
The membrane stresses are given by  1   2  Y
The true strains in the membrane are given by

 2rf   rf 
 1   2  ln   ln 
 2r0   r0 
Example 2.7
Solution
As an element in this shell is subjected to equal biaxial
stretching, the specific energy is
1 2
 rf 
u    1d 1    2 d 2  2 1 1  2Y ln 
0 0  r0 
Since the volume of the shell material is 4r02t0 ,

 rf 
W  u Volume   8r02t0 ln 
 r0 
Thus, according to the distortion-energy criterion,
 
1
2

02   2 2    1 2 
1 / 2
 1   2
Example 2.7
Solution
As an element in this shell is subjected to equal biaxial
stretching, the specific energy is
1 2
 rf 
u    1d 1    2 d 2  2 1 1  2Y ln 
0 0  r0 
Since the volume of the shell material is 4r0 t0 , the work done
2
is
 rf 
W  u Volume   8r t ln
2
0 0

 r0 

Example 2.7
Solution
Power is defined as the rate of work; thus
dW
Power 
dt
Since all other factors in the expression are constant,
r
W  ln   ln r  ln r0 
 r0 
Hence,
1 dr
Power 
r dt
1
Since the shell is expanding at a constant rate, Power  r

Example 2.8
Temperature rise in simple deformation
A cylindrical specimen 2.54 cm in diameter and 2.54 cm high is being compressed
by dropping a weight of 45.36 kg on it from a certain height. The material has the
following properties: K = 103,421.36 kPa, n = 0.5, density = 0.002768 kg/cm3,
and specific heat 96,714.86 ws/kg°C. Assuming no heat loss and no friction,
calculate the final height of the specimen if the temperature rise is 55.555778°C.
Solution
The expression for heat is given by
Heat  C p  Volume T   191416.5826 J
 103421.36  1.5 3    0.0254
2

Heat
Thus, Work  u Volume   
 
 10   0.0254     35.9677
 1.5  4 
h   
Using absolute values, we have ln 0   ln 2.54   35.9677  h f  6.0847 10-16 cm
h   h 
 f   f 

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Manufacturing Processes

for Engineering Materials

Chapter 2: Fundamentals of Mechanical Behavior of Materials

Chapter 2: Fundamentals of Mechanical Behavior of Materials

Chapter 2: Fundamentals of Mechanical Behavior of Materials

Chapter 2: Fundamentals of Mechanical Behavior of Materials

Chapter 2: Fundamentals of Mechanical Behavior of Materials

Chapter 2: Fundamentals of Mechanical Behavior of Materials

Chapter 2: Fundamentals of Mechanical Behavior of Materials

• From above, the largest strain is at the narrowest region

Chapter 2: Fundamentals of Mechanical Behavior of Materials

Chapter 2: Fundamentals of Mechanical Behavior of Materials

• Toughness is the energy per unit volume (specific energy)

Chapter 2: Fundamentals of Mechanical Behavior of Materials

• Because dP = 0 at the UTS where necking begins,

• However since   K,n we have  n

Calculate the true ultimate tensile strength and the engineering

Chapter 2: Fundamentals of Mechanical Behavior of Materials

The cross-sectional area at the onset of necking is obtained

where δ is the true ultimate tensile strength.

Chapter 2: Fundamentals of Mechanical Behavior of Materials

Chapter 2: Fundamentals of Mechanical Behavior of Materials

Chapter 2: Fundamentals of Mechanical Behavior of Materials

Chapter 2: Fundamentals of Mechanical Behavior of Materials

Chapter 2: Fundamentals of Mechanical Behavior of Materials

where v = speed of the die

Chapter 2: Fundamentals of Mechanical Behavior of Materials

Chapter 2: Fundamentals of Mechanical Behavior of Materials

Chapter 2: Fundamentals of Mechanical Behavior of Materials

where P = load at fracture

Chapter 2: Fundamentals of Mechanical Behavior of Materials

Chapter 2: Fundamentals of Mechanical Behavior of Materials

Chapter 2: Fundamentals of Mechanical Behavior of Materials

Since none of the quantities in this expression are zero, thus a

Chapter 2: Fundamentals of Mechanical Behavior of Materials

Mc where M = bending moment

Chapter 2: Fundamentals of Mechanical Behavior of Materials

Chapter 2: Fundamentals of Mechanical Behavior of Materials

Chapter 2: Fundamentals of Mechanical Behavior of Materials

Chapter 2: Fundamentals of Mechanical Behavior of Materials

Chapter 2: Fundamentals of Mechanical Behavior of Materials

A piece of steel is highly deformed at room temperature. Its

Chapter 2: Fundamentals of Mechanical Behavior of Materials

Chapter 2: Fundamentals of Mechanical Behavior of Materials

Chapter 2: Fundamentals of Mechanical Behavior of Materials

Chapter 2: Fundamentals of Mechanical Behavior of Materials

Chapter 2: Fundamentals of Mechanical Behavior of Materials

• For simple tension where  2   3 , 0

Chapter 2: Fundamentals of Mechanical Behavior of Materials

Chapter 2: Fundamentals of Mechanical Behavior of Materials

According to the distortion-energy criterion,

Therefore, p = 2.7579 MPa.

Chapter 2: Fundamentals of Mechanical Behavior of Materials

Explain why a correction factor has to be applied in the construction of a true

P.W. Bridgman gives the ratio of true stress to

Chapter 2: Fundamentals of Mechanical Behavior of Materials

• For plane-strain compression, the distortion energy

Chapter 2: Fundamentals of Mechanical Behavior of Materials

• In the plastic range, v = 0.5  Δ=0 .

• True stress–true strain is expressed as   K n

Chapter 2: Fundamentals of Mechanical Behavior of Materials

The true strains in the membrane are given by

Since the volume of the shell material is 4r02t0 ,