COURSE: INTRODUCTION TO GIS and

RS
1:
INTRODUCTION TO GIS:

1
 GIS refers to three integrated parts.

1. Geographic: The geographical location of the real world

(coordinate system).

Implies an interest in the spatial identity or locality of certain

entities on, under or above the surface of the earth.

2. Information: The database.

Implies the need to be informed in order to make decisions. Data

or raw facts are interpreted to create information that is useful

for decision-making.

2
3. Systems: The hardware and software;

Implies the need for staff, computer hardware

and procedures, which can produce

the information required for decision-making

that is data collection, processing, and

presentation.

3
 GIS description
There are different definitions for Geographic Information System,

each developed from a different perspective or disciplinary origin.

Some focus on the map connection, some stress the database or the

software tool kit and others emphasis applications such as decision

support.

Defining a GIS can be done by either explaining what it can do

(Functions) or by looking at the components.

Both are important to really understand a GIS and use it optimally.

4
GIS is defined as a computerized system for capture, storage,

retrieval, analysis and display of spatial data describing the land

attributes and environmental features for a given geographic

region, by using modem information technology (Thurgood, 1995).

 According to this definition, a GIS includes not only computing

capability and data, but also managers and users, the

organization in which they function and institutional

relationships that govern their management and use of

information.

5
A GIS can be defined as a computing application capable of
creating, storing, manipulating, visualizing, and analyzing
geographic information.

It finds its strongest applications in;

 resources management,
 utilities management,
 telecommunications,
 urban and regional planning,
 vehicle routing and parcel delivery, and

in all of the sciences that deal with the surface of the Earth.

6
 What Can a GIS Do?
/GIS Architecture/Work Flow

A GIS performs six fundamental operations that make it a useful tool for
finding solutions to real-world problems.
1. Capture data:
You can add data from many sources to a GIS, and you can also create
your own data from scratch.
2. Store data:
You can store and manage information about the real world in ways that
makes sense for your application.
3. Query data:

You can ask complex questions about features based on their attributes
7
or their location and get quick results.
4. Analyze data:

You can integrate multiple datasets to find features that meet specific

criteria and create information useful for problem solving.

5. Display data:

You can display features based on their attributes, a powerful feature

you’ll come to appreciate.

6. Present data:

You can create and distribute high-quality maps, graphs, and reports to

present your analysis results in a compelling way to your audience.

8
Fig GIS workflow diagram

9
 GIS Infrastructure

GIS have mainly 5 components: Hardware, Software, Data, People,

and Methods.
Hardware:
Hardware is the computer on which a GIS operates; Hardware
relates to device used by end users such as graphic devices or
plotters and scanners.
 It consists of the computer system on which the GIS software will
run.
The choice of hardware system range from 300MHz Personal
Computers to Super Computers having capability in Tera FLOPS.
10
Software:
GIS software provides the functions and tools needed to store,
analyze and display geographic information.
Key software components are;
• Tools for the input and manipulation of geographic information.
• A database management system (DBMS)
• Tools that support geographic query, analysis and visualization.
• A geographical user interface (GUI) for easy access to tools.

11
GIS software in use are ArcGIS, MapInfo, Global mapper,
AutoCAD Map, etc.
The software available can be said to be application specific.
When the low cost GIS work is to be carried out desktop Global
mapper, and Mapinfo is the suitable option. It is easy to use and
supports many GIS feature.
 If the user intends to carry out extensive analysis on GIS
including modelling and report generation, ArcGIS is the
preferred option.

 For the people using AutoCAD and willing to step into GIS,
AutoCAD Map is a good option.
12
Data:
Data is one of the most important, and often most expensive,
components of a GIS.
Geographic data and related tabular data can be collected in-house or
purchased from a commercial data provider, from several websites
 A GIS will integrate spatial data with other data resources and can
even use a DBMS, used by most organizations to organize and
maintain their data, to manage spatial data.

13
User/People: GIS technology is of limited value without the people
who manage the system and develop plans for applying it to real-
world problems.
 The GIS users range from technical specialists who design and
maintain the system to those who use it to help them perform their
everyday work.
In other way, The term "user" may refer to any individual who will
use GIS to support project or program goals, or to an entire
organization that will employ GIS in support of its overall mission.

14
Methods: A successful GIS operates according to a well-designed
plan and business rules, which are the models and operating
practices unique to each organization.
In general, Geographic Information System- The organized activity
by which people;
 Measure aspects of geographic phenomena and processes.
 Represent these measurements, usually in the form of a computer
database, to emphasize spatial themes, entities and relationships.
 Operate upon these representations to produce more
measurements and to discover new relationships by integrating
disparate sources.
 Transform these representations to conform to other frameworks
of entities and relationships.

15
 Trend of GIS

• Dark age- before 1960

• Pioneering period- 1960-1975
• Commercialization of GIS Software- 1975 to 1990
• User Proliferation- 1990 to 2010
• The Open Source Explosion- 2010 to Onward

16
 2. GIS DATA & DATA MODEL
GIS Data
 Data in a GIS represent a simplified view of physical
entities or phenomena
 Each entity is represented by a spatial feature or
cartographic object in the GIS, and there is an entity-
object correspondence.
Unlike other kinds of data handled routinely by modern information
systems, GIS data are complicated by the fact that they must include
information about
Position
Possible topological relations and
17
Attribute of the objects recorded
 GIS handles 2 basic data types:
Geographic (spatial) and attribute (statistical) data.

A) Spatial Data
 Describes the location, shape and the possible topological relations
among each of the feature.
 Spatial objects in the real world occurs in 4 easily identifiable types:

 Points, lines, areas and surfaces

18
 Characteristics of spatial data
➲ “mappable” characteristics:
o Location (coordinate system)
o Size is calculated by the amount (length, area, perimeter)
of the data
o Shape is defined as shape (point, line, area) of the feature
➲ Spatial relationships
Also it can occurred as Discrete or continuous.

19
 (a) Discrete Features

(i) Point Features

These involve features having specific location without any
extension in any direction. Such features can be
represented by points in the GIS environment. Points are
represented by pair of x, y coordinates with label name.

Ex. Location of oil wells, rain gauge stations, electrical poles,

boreholes, epicenter of an earth quake, towns, etc
20
 (ii) Linear features:

represents features with linear extensions.

Lines consist of series of X, Y coordinates with
starting and ending points and a label name.
Such feature has length attributes.
Features as roads, rivers, pipelines, power lines,
elevation contours are examples of such features.

21
 (iii) Areas or polygon features:
involves features with extended areas.
 They are represented by closed features designated by
a set of linked lines called polygons.
 Polygons will have starting and same closed coordinate
(X,Y) and a label.
Polygons will have area and perimeter attributes.

22
 (b) Continuous Surfaces:
 These features involve ground elevations,
variation of mean annual temperature and rainfall
and population densities.
 They can be represented by GIS in raster data
structures. Ex. DEM of parts of Wollega

23
 B) None Spatial Data

 Refers to the attribute component of GIS data that can

connect the tabular data to a map features .
 It is a statistical information about the spatial data.
 Both continuous and thematic layers contain statistical
information .
Thematic layers contain
o Histogram of data values
o A list of class names
o A list of class values
 These statistics are called attributes.
24
 Attributes are text and numerical data that are associated with
the classes of a thematic layer or features in a vector layer.
 Attribute information can take the form of character strings,
integer numbers or floating point numbers.
 For raster layers attribute information are stored in the image
files
 For vector layers information is stored in either an INFO file,
dbf file, or SDE database

25
 SPATIAL DATA STRUCTURE
• Structures that provide information required for computer to
reconstruct spatial data model in digital form are defined as spatial
data structure.
• Many GIS software have specific capabilities for storing and
manipulating attributes data in addition to spatial information.
However, basic spatial data structures in GIS are mainly;
vector and
raster.

26
 Raster Data Structure
Raster or grid data structure refers to the storage of the raster data for
data processing and analysis by the computer.

There are mainly three commonly used data structures such as cell-by-cell
encoding, run-length encoding, and quadtree (Chang, 2010).
• Cell-By-Cell Encoding Data Structure

• This is the simplest raster data structure and is characterised by

subdividing a geographic space into grid cells. Each pixel or grid cell
contains a value.
• A grid matrix and its cell values for a raster are arranged into a file by
row and column. Fig. below shows the cell-by-cell encoding data
structure. Digital Elevation Models (DEMs) are the best examples for
27
Cell-by-cell encoding data structure

28
 Cont’d
• In Fig. above the value 1 represents the gray cells and 0 has no
data. This cell-by-cell encoding method can also be used for
storage of data in satellite images.
• Most of satellite images consist of multispectral bands and each
pixel in a satellite image has more than one value.
• Mainly three formats such as Band Sequential (BSQ), Band
Interleaved by Lines (BIL), and Band Interleaved by Pixels
(BIP) are used to store data in a multiband/multispectral
imagery.

29
 Run-Length Encoding Data Structure

• Run-Length Encoding (RLE) algorithm was developed to handle the

problem that a grid often contains redundant or missing data.
• When the raster data contains more missing data, the cell-by-cell
encoding method cannot be suggested.
• In RLE method, adjacent cells along a row with the same value are
treated as a group called a run.
• If a whole row has only one class, it is stored as the class and the
same attributes are kept without change. Instead of repeatedly
storing the same value for each cell, the value is stored once
together with the number of the cells that makes the run.
30
Fig. below explains the run-length encoding structure of a polygon. In
the figure, the starting cell and the end cell of the each row denote the
length of group and is generally called as run.

Run-length encoding data structure

31
 Quadtree Data Structure

• To compress the data as well as to save the space in original grid,

quad tree data structure can be used (Fig. below).
• A quadtree works by dividing a grid into four quadrants for the
available data.
• The available data quadrant is again split into four half-size
quadrants and so on until the individual pixel is reached.
• The attribute data for all the pixels of the quadrant remains the
same even if it is divided.

32
 Cont’d

Quadtree data structure

33
 Vector Data Structure
• As you know description of geographical phenomena explained in
the form of point, line, or polygons is called as vector data structure.
Vector data structures are now widely used in GIS and computer
cartography.
• This data structure has an advantage in deriving information from
digitisation, and is more exact in representation of complex features
such as administration boundaries, land parcels, etc.

34
• Early time files are generally written in a binary or ASCII (American
Standard Code for Information Interchange) code which refers to a set
of codes used to represent alpha numerical characters in computer data
processing.
• Therefore, a computer programmer needs to follow the line from one
place to another in the file to enter the data in system.
• This unstructured vector data are called as cartographic spaghetti.
Vector data in the spaghetti data model may not be usable by GIS.
• However, most of the systems still use this basic data structure because
of their standard format (e.g., mapping agency’s standard linear
format). Current vector data structure? 35
To express the spatial relationships more accurately between the
features, the concept of topology has evolved.
Topology can explain the spatial relationships of adjacent,
connectivity and containment between spatial features.
Topological data are useful for detecting and correcting digitising
errors.

36
Comparison of Raster and Vector Data
Models

37
38
 DATABASE MANAGEMENT SYSTEM
Real world entities or objects can be stored into computer files
which are simple or well organised lists.
The data record in a file contains all the appropriate information for
each entity.
Spatial databases contain many files with data on related aspects of
the same entities or other connected or linked together.
• Proper organisation is important for storing these files in an
appropriate way to model real world phenomena and to ensure
efficient storage and retrieval of data.

39
A software package designed to facilitate creation and maintenance
of computerised database is called as a Database Management
System (DBMS).
There are many methods for efficiently storing and retrieving the
data. But oldest version are not used in GIS.
hierarchical,
network,
relational, and
object-based
40
The fundamental objective of the DBMS is to make data quickly
available to a multitude of users.
The three primary facets of database integrity are:
• protecting the existence of the database against deletion and
corruption
• maintaining the quality of the database to facilitate the addition,
removal, and updating, if necessary
• ensuring the privacy of the database

41
 Con’d

• The set of rules for constructing queries is known as a query language.

• Different DBMSs support different query languages, although there is a

semi-standardised query language called Structured Query Language
(SQL).
• Microsofts Mappoint, IBM’s Spatial DataBlade, Oracle Spatial are
relational database management systems having high-level programming
interface which can be linked to access and manage the spatial data.
• Many GIS utilise the DBMS as part of their system because of the
capability to handle data explicitly.

42
 3.
3.1 Coordinate System (spatial data referencing)
Question

Why do we need a reference system?

Know where we are
Where to go to get to some point
Direction to travel to get to a point
Communicate to other people how to find places
o Locally
o Globally 43
 Coordinate systems for Spatial data Referencing

• A coordinate system is a reference system used to represent the

locations of geographic features within a common geographic
framework.
• Coordinate systems provide a framework for defining real-world
locations.
• the coordinate system is used as the method to automatically
integrate the geographic locations from different datasets into a
common coordinate framework for display and analysis.

44
There are two common types of coordinate systems used in GIS:
A) A global or spherical coordinate system /geographic coordinate
systems/Geographic (3D)
 the primary coordinate system is the geographic coordinate system
(or geodetic, spherical or spheroidal).
 the geographic coordinates (or latitudes and longitudes) are angular
measures defining the absolute position of a point on the surface of
the globe.
Geographical, or spherical, coordinates are based on the network of
latitude and longitude (Lat/Lon) lines that make up the graticule of
the Earth.
45
• uses a three-dimensional spherical surface to define locations on the
earth.
• A point is referenced by its longitude and latitude values.
 Longitude and latitude are angles measured from the earth's
center to a point on the earth's surface.
 The angles often are measured in degrees.
• Within the graticule, lines of longitude are called meridians, which
run north/south, with the prime meridian at 0° (Greenwich, England).
o Meridians are designated as 0° to 180°, east or west of the
prime meridian.

46
47
• Lines of latitude are called parallels, which run east/west.
• Parallels are designated as 0° at the equator to 90° at the poles.
• The equator is the largest parallel.
• Latitude and longitude are defined with respect to an origin located at
the intersection of the equator and the prime meridian.

48
Latitudes and Longitudes for a point

550N 600E
The geographic coordinates
(or latitudes and
longitudes) are angular
measures defining the
absolute position of a point
on the surface of the
globe.

49
B) A projected coordinate system /map projections
map projections are mathematical formulas that are used to translate
latitude and longitude on the surface of the earth to x and y coordinates
on a plane.
• A projected coordinate system is defined on a flat, two-dimensional
surface.
• It is always based on a geographic coordinate system that is based on
a sphere or spheroid.
• In a projected coordinate system, locations are identified by x,y
coordinates on a grid, with the origin at the center of the grid.

50
• Each position has two values that reference it to that central location.
• One specifies its horizontal position and the other its vertical position.
• The two values are called the x-coordinate & y-coordinate.
• Using this notation, the coordinates at the origin are x = 0 and y = 0.
EX: UTM Coordinate System
 UTM is projection that divide the Earth into 60 longitudinal zones
with a central meridian in the center of the zone.
 Extends from 800S & 840N latitudes.
 The coordinates are in meters; making it easy to make accurate
calculations of short distances between points

51
52
 2.2 Projection and transformation
• Projections
The earth is a spheroid

The best model of the earth is a globe

not easy to carry
not good for planimetric measurement

Maps are flat

easy to carry
good for measurement

Map projections are created to “project” data from

a sphere onto a planar surface

53
Earth to Globe to Map

54
 This transformation necessarily distorts some aspect of
the earth's surface, either the area, shape, distance, or
direction.
 All map projections distort the surface in some fashion.
 Depending on the purpose of the map, some distortions
are acceptable and others are not.
55
• Cartographic (map) projections try to flatten the curved surface of
the globe without stretching or tearing it.
However, since all map projections attempt to represent the
curved surface of the Earth on a flat sheet of paper distortions are
inevitable.

One easy way to understand how map projections alter spatial

properties is to visualize shining a light through the earth onto a
surface, called the projection surface.
1. Imagine the earth's surface is clear with the graticule
drawn on it.
2. Wrap a piece of paper around the earth.
A light at the center of the earth will cast the shadows of
the graticule onto the piece of paper. next

56
 3.You can now unwrap the paper and lay it flat.
The shape of the graticule on the flat paper is different from that on
the earth.
The map projection has distorted the graticule.
spheroid can't be flattened to a plane any more easily than a piece
of orange peel can be flattened—it will rip.
Representing the earth's surface in two dimensions causes distortion
in the shape, area, distance, or direction of the data.
A map projection uses mathematical formulas to maintaining spatial
relationships on the globe to flat, planar coordinates.

57
• Projections

an imaginary light is “projected”

on a “developable surface”
58
_
 Types of Projections Based on Developable Surfaces
Three primary flat surfaces are used to describe map projections:
planes, cylinders and cones.

59
Three types of projections can be developed from these surfaces:
1. The cylindrical Projection:
Transferring of meridians, parallels and other points by wrapping a
flat plane/sheet into a cylinder and making it tangent along a line or
lines on the globe. Or a cylinder circumscribes a globe. The
cylinder touches the globe at the equator.

60
tangent cylinders
 Such projections stretch distances east-west and the amount of
stretch is the same at any chosen latitude on all cylindrical
projections
when unfolding the cylinder:
Meridians are mapped to equally spaced
vertical lines and
 circles of latitude (parallels) are mapped to
horizontal lines

Latitudes

Meridians

61
 2. Conical Projection
Transferring of parallels and meridians from the generating globe
grid to a cone enveloped around the globe.
The meridians converge at the poles and parallels seem arcs of
circles.

Meridians
Latitudes

62
63
 3. Azimuthal Projection:
• Transferring parallels, meridians and points from the generating
globe to a plane sheet of paper at a point.
• Meridians radiate from the center and paralles become concentric
circles.

Meridians
Latitudes

64
 Datum
o While a spheroid approximates the shape of the earth, a datum defines
the position of the spheroid relative to the center of the earth.
o A datum provides a frame of reference for measuring locations on the
surface of the earth.
o It defines the origin and orientation of latitude and longitude lines.
o It is a smooth, mathematical representation of the earth’s surface that
creates a control surface on w/c an ellipsoid and other location data
are referenced.
o A mathematical surface that fits closely to the mean sea level surface
throughout the area of interest. The surface to which the ground
control measurements are referred.
o Created from large numbers of measurements of the earths surface.
65
Eg. of datum

66
 Geo-referecing
 There are various definitions for the term ‘georeferencing’.
For example, Sommer and Wade define georeferencing as
‘aligning geographic data to a known coordinate system so it
can be viewed, queried, and analysed with other geographic
data’.

67
•
Georeferencing can be seen as an umbrella term for techniques
which are concerned with the unique identification of geographical
objects.
The term ‘geographical object’ in a broader view refers to any kind
of object or structure which can reasonably be related to a
geographical location, such as points of interest (POIs), roads,
places, bridges, buildings or agricultural areas.
A geographical location is an entity which represents a spatial
reference.
Geographical locations can be defined in multiple spatial
dimensions: 0-dimensional (points), 1-dimensional (lines), 2-
68
dimensional (areas) and, rarely, 3-dimensional (bodies).
4. DATA CAPTURE AND
ENTRY/

69
4.1 GIS-DATA & Sources:
 The most important and expensive component of the Geographic
Information System is Data which is generally known as fuel for
GIS.
GIS data is combination of graphic/spatial and tabular data.

 A wide variety of data sources exist for both spatial and attribute
data.
The most common general sources for spatial data are:
aerial photographs;
remotely-sensed imagery;
point data, samples from surveys; and
 4.2 Data Entry
The data input process is the operation of encoding both types of data
(geographic and attribute data) into the GIS database formats.

The most common data input ways are: Data transfer from instruments,
Keyboard Entry, Map Scanning and digitization

A) Data Transfer From Instruments:

 GPS with the total station is one of the instruments from w/c GIS
data can be transferred.
 A GPS device calculates its location using signals received from the
satellites.
 GPS positioning is based on trilateration a method of determining
position by measuring distances to points at known coordinates.
 At a minimum, trilateration requires 3 ranges to 3 known points.

71
B) Keyboard Entry: Used to enter attribute data as field observations
C) Map Scanning:
o Involves the use of scanners for map data conversion.
oThe scanning is used to:
 Obtain digital image data as a base map for other vector
information
 Scanning Requires:
 Captured image is a raster.
 Scanned image needs to be converted to a vector
 Vectorization process that attempts to distill points, lines and areas
from scanned image consisting of pixels removal of all pixels that
make the line wider than one pixel

72
C) Digitization:
o Captures map data by tracing lines from a map
o Uses a cursor and an electronically-sensitive tablet
o Result is a string of points with (x, y) values
 Manual digitizing (human operator, control points)
 on-tablet: paper map on tablet
 on-screen: scanned image of map shown on screen
o point mode: mouse location recorded only if operator
says so
o stream mode: near continuous recording of locations
 Automatic digitizing:
 GIS finds features from scanned image with little or no
interaction from operator
 source document must be scanned first

73
Digitizing process

74
A digitizer is made up of 3 components:
• A table
•A cursor and
•A controller

Table Cursor

Controller

75
On-screen versus on-tablet digitising

On-screen versus on-tablet digitizing

 On-screen more comfortable for the operator
 On-screen generally more accurate ( zooming facilities )
 On-screen faster (semi-automatic, digitising and editing at the same
time)
 On-screen up-dating procedure ( geometrically corrected satellite
imagery and scanned aerial photo’s can be overlaid with the old
vector data )
 Digitizing tablet –easier to do larger maps
 Digitizing tablet –better for worn out maps
76
 Digitizing involves:
a) Hardcopy Digitization

• Hardcopy digitizing requires a person to enter coordinate information

through the use of a digitizing tablet and digitizing puck
– A digitizing tablet is a surface with a fine electrical wire grid
under the surface.
– A digitizing puck is an electrical device with cross hairs and
multiple buttons to perform data entry operations
– An operator then enters the information using the puck.

77
78/70
79
 b) On-Screen Digitization

• On-screen digitizing is a combination of scanning and

manual digitizing.
• The main steps in on-screen digitizing typically include:
– Scanning the map
– Registering the map
– Digitizing the map

80
 5.
Spatial Data analysis
Data Conversion
• There are several ways to think about converting raster data in
ArcGIS.
• You may want to convert nonraster data into raster data or vice
versa, such as converting a point file into a raster dataset.
• You may want to convert raster data into another type of raster data,
such as changing the file format from .img to .tif, or you may want
to change how it's managed, such as converting from a raster
catalog to a mosaic dataset.

81
 Converting to and from non-raster data
Converts an ASCII file representing raster data to a raster
ASCII to Raster
dataset.

Feature to Raster Converts features to a raster dataset.

Converts a file of binary floating-point values

Float to Raster
representing raster data to a raster dataset.

Point to Raster Converts point features to a raster dataset.

Polygon to Raster Converts polygon features to a raster dataset.

Polyline to Raster Converts polyline features to a raster dataset.

82
Converting a raster dataset to a vector dataset

Tool Description

Converts a raster dataset to

Raster to Point
point features.

Converts a raster dataset to

Raster to Polygon
polygon features.

Converts a raster to polyline

Raster to Polyline
features.

83
 Spatial Data Analysis
1.Analysis of Vector GIS Data
 The poser of GIS lies in its ability to analyze spatial and
attribute data together.
 GIS analysis functions are of very large & can be categorized as:
• Retrieval, Classification and Measurement Function
• Overlay operations
• Neighboring Functions and
• Connectivity or network functions

84
A. Retrieval, Classification and Measurement Functions:
o Used to retrieve and or select spatial and attribute data,
 but only the attribute data are modified or created.
 No changes are made to the location of spatial elements
and no new spatial element is created.
o Measurement functions include computing distances between
features.
o Classification refers to the reassignment of a thematic,
characteristic value to features in a data layer.

85
B. Data Overlay Operations:
o One of the great strength of GIS is its capability to integrate
landscape features and attribute information from more than
one GIS database in to a single GIS data base.
 The techniques of combining two spatial layers and producing a
third one from them is called spatial overlaying.
o Standard overlay operators take two input data layers that are geo-
referenced in the same coordinate system and overlap in the study
area.
 If either condition is not fulfilled, overlay operation is
impossible.
o Different operators are used to combine two or more input layers
in to a single output layer.
 The commonly implemented operators in a typical vector based
GIS include: union, intersect, identity, clip, and split process.
86
A union overlay:
 combines the geographic features and attribute tables of both
inputs into a single new output.
 It overlay polygons and keeps all areas in both layers.
First input layer 2nd input layer Resulting
Layer
+ =

An intersect overlay:
 defines the area where both inputs overlap and retains a set of
attribute fields for each.
It overlay polygons but keeps only those portions of the first
input layer features falling with in the second input layer
polygon.

87
Identity:
 Overlay polygons and keeps all the first input layer features plus
those portions of the second layer that overlap the first input
coverage.

Clip:
Cuts out a piece of the first input layer using the second input
layer.

88
Data extraction:
 can be used in either vector or raster data analysis.
 Rather than combining the properties and features of both
datasets, data extraction involves using a "clip" or "mask" to
extract the features of one data set that fall within the spatial
extent of another dataset.

89
 C. Neighborhood Functions:
 are useful for obtaining a value for each cell based on a specified
neighborhood.
 It is used to analyze proximity in which attribute values are
assigned to new points on the basis of the values of existing
neighboring points or observations.
 One common proximity analysis function is buffering.

 Buffer is a zone with specified width surrounding a spatial feature.

 Buffers can be generated around point, line and polygon features.
 The buffer generated takes the shape from the feature.

90
 For a point buffer, it is a circle with a specified radius (as a buffer
distance) distance surrounding a point.
Ex. A 2Km Proximity to Waste Disposal Site center in a region

91
 For a line buffer, it is a band with a specified distance created on both
sides of the line feature.

Ex.1Km Proximity to rivers in a Woreda 92

 For polygon buffer, it is a belt of a specified buffer distance from
the edge of the polygon surrounding a polygon and conforming to
its shape.
Ex. A 5Km in and a 5Km out proximity from the boundary of a
protected area in a region .

93
D. Connectivity/Network Functions:

 Connectivity function represents a set of interconnected linear

features.
 Networks are commonly used for moving resources from one
location to another.
 High ways, rail lines, city streets, rivers, transportation routs
and utility distribution systems are represented with networks.

94
 5.2 Analysis of Raster Data
 Generating a continuous surface used to represent a particular
attribute is a key capability required in most geographic information
system (GIS) applications.
 Perhaps the most commonly used surface type is a digital elevation
model of terrain.
 It is significant for measurement taken at locations across a
landscape, subsurface, or atmosphere.
 Images and Digital Orthographs are used to generate surfaces data.
 GIS posesses raster analytical tools.
 The Image Analysis window supports the analysis and exploitation of
image and raster data in ArcMap with a collection of commonly used
display capabilities, processes, and measurement tools.

95
DEM Analysis:
With the Surface tools, we can quantify and visualize a terrain
landform represented by a digital elevation model.
contours, angle of slope, steepest downslope direction (Aspect), and
shaded relief (Hillshade) can be obtained.
Identifies the downslope direction of the maximum
Aspect rate of change in value from each cell to its
neighbors.
Creates a line feature class of contours (isolines)
Contour
from a raster surface.
Creates a shaded relief from a surface raster by
Hillshade considering the illumination source angle and
shadows.
Identifies the slope (gradient, or rate of maximum
Slope 96
Geostatistical Analysis:
 A major challenge facing most GIS modelers is to generate the most
accurate surface possible from existing sample data as well as
characterize the error and variability of the predicted surface.
 Newly generated surfaces are used in further GIS modeling and
analysis as well as in 3D visualization.
Geostatistical Analyst uses sample points taken at different locations in
a landscape and creates (interpolates) a continuous surface.
The sample points are measurements of some phenomenon, such as
radiation leaking from a nuclear power plant, an oil spill, or elevation
heights.
Geostatistical Analyst derives a surface using the values from the
measured locations to predict values for each location in the landscape.
97
 6. Presentation of Geographic Information

6.1 Map Types

There are different types of maps based on different criterion.
 Can be categorized in to two main types based on their design
purpose.
I. Reference (or general purpose) maps:
 maps that depict selected details of the physical and human-
made environment as accurately as possible.
 use symbols to locate and identify important landmarks and
geographic features.
Examples road maps, wall maps, political maps, physical maps, and
topographic maps.

98
II. Thematic (or special purpose)
 are maps that depict the general spatial pattern of selected features
or data.
 emphasize some particular feature or set of data using color, shading,
or symbols to represent differences.
For example, rainfall or locations of crops, census maps focus on
population distribution as well as data on such items as age,
ethnicity, and income;
 these maps help governments provide services to its citizens and plan
for the future.
 can portray data using
 shaded areas (choropleth),
 dots (dot-density),
 symbols of different sizes (graduated symbol),
 lines of equal measurement (isoline), or
 proportional size of area (cartogram). 99
 6.2 Map Contents
 There are certain compulsory items w/c all maps should necessarily
include in their margins.
 These items are very necessary for reading maps since reading maps
without such information is impossible.
 They include mariginal informations as the scale of the map, the title
of the map, sheet number and series, key/legend to conventional
symbols and signs, scale, direction, edition and publication
information, contour interval, lat/long or Easting/Northing indication
numbers, boundary diagram & etc.

100
 6.2.1 Map Layout
 The result of a GIS analysis in most cases can best be shown on a
map.
Charts and reports of selected data are two other ways of presenting
the results of the analysis.
Outputs in the form of maps are generated in hard copy formats by
plotters.
Some of the output formatting processes are:
I. Map Annotations:
This involves inserting the common annotations as titles, scale bars, and
north arrows.
101
 II. Text Labels
 The text labels also termed as name labels are placed within the
map area.
 They may be placed next to a point location ( city names), along a
linear feature (the name of a river) or within a polygon ( name of
a country).
Text pattern and line styles:
 The selection of line widths and colors is dependent on the
output device.
 Lines that represent features such as highways, railways or
political boundaries are commonly distinguished in this way.
 Line types such as dashed lines, dotted lines, are also used to
distinguish elements. 102
Patterns including solid color fill can be used to distinguish
different types of areas.
III. Graphic Symbols:
Graphic symbols are used to represent map objects.
The symbols involves the symbols used to designate city, church,
mosques, temples, mountain peak, etc.

103
Thank you!!!

104