Unit 5: External Processes & Related

Land Features
5.1. Concept of Exogenic Process and Forces
Exogenic processes are the process which occur on the Earth's surface and
that generally reduces/modify reliefs.
The energy that powers these processes comes from: Sun, gravity, inner earth

1
Simple Model of Landform Development
 Monogenetic Vs. Polygenetic Landforms
Polygenetic landforms: landforms that show the influence of several processes.
 Polycyclic Landforms: Processes acting on landforms can also change over
time, and a single landscape can undergo several cycles of development.
E.g Rejuvenated landforms

2
 Concept of Weathering Process and its types
Weathering is the breakdown of rocks by mechanical disintegration and chemical
decomposition.
 It is the decay of rocks by biological, chemical, and mechanical agents with
little or no transport.
 Determinant Factors of Weathering
Weathering processes differ from place to place. These spatial differences are
determined by a set of interacting factors like:
1. Rock type and Composition
2. Surface Area of the material
3. Climate,
4. Topography,
5. Organisms, and the age of the weathered surface.
 Types of Weathering
1. Mechanical Weathering, (Effect of frost wedging, glacier, pressure, rainfall)
2. Biological Weathering (Effect of Plants & Animals)
3. Chemical Weathering (Effect of chemical reaction)

5
 Rates of Weathering
 Rate of physical weathering is very slow and determine mainly by climate.
 it can take 2000 years to weather 1 cm of limestone
 Physical weathering can break down rocks more rapidly in cool climates.
 Cold climates do not favour chemical weathering because cool temperatures slow or
inhibit chemical reactions.
Chemical weathering is rapid in climates with warm temperatures, abundant rainfall, and lush
vegetation.
Chemical weathering has the greatest effects along the equator, where rainfall is plentiful and
the temperature tends to be high.
Chemical and mechanical weathering rates to
temperature and rainfall.
 ii. Erosion and Denudation
Erosion, which is derived from the Latin (erodere, to gnaw;
erosus, eaten away), is the sum of all destructive processes by
which weathering products are picked up (entrained) and carried
by transporting media – ice, water, and wind.

Denudation, which comes from the Latin denudare, meaning

‘to lay bare’, is the conjoint action of weathering and erosion,
which processes simultaneously wear away the land surface.

8
 5.2. Theories of Landform and
Slope Development
Since there are a number of scholars who contribute for the evolution
of geomorphology, there are a number of geomorphic theories of
landform development. Some of the major geomorphic theories are:
1.Davisian Theory: Geographic Cycle (Cycle of Erosion)
2. Penck‘s Theory: Slope Development
3. Gilbert‘s Theory: the landscape is the result of two competing
tendencies i.e. tendency towards variability (when driving force
exceeds resisting force) and tendency towards uniformity (when
driving force equals resisting force)‖.
4. Theory of L.C. King: Landscape Cyclic Models
5. Theory of J.T. Hack: the shape of the landforms reflects the balance
between the resistance of the underlying materials to erosion and the
erosive energy of the active processes. 9
 Davis’s Assumption
Landforms are the evolved products of the interactions of endogenetic
forces originating from with in the earth and the exogenetic forces
forces such as winds, rivers, glaciers, etc. which orginating on the
surface and atmosphere.
The evolution of landforms takes place in an orderly manner in a such
a way that a systematic sequence of landforms is developed through
time.
Streams erode their valleys rapidly downward until the graded
condition is achieved.
There is a short period /rapid rate of upliftment in landmass
Erosion does not start until until the upliftment completed. Hence,
erosion starts after the completion of the upliftment of landmass

10
 William Morris Davis’s Model of Erosion Cycle
William Morris Davis’s idealized ‘geographical cycle’ in
which a landscape evolves through ‘life-stages’ to produce a
peneplain
 Cont’d
According to Davis, the landscape is a function of structure, process, and time
stage. All of these three play a dominant role in the origin and development of
landforms in a particular place. Structure deals with the nature of rock (whether hard
or soft) as well as its structural characteristics (folds, faults, etc.). In the soft rock, the
cycle is completed in short duration compared to the hard rocks.
Process is concerned with internal and external forces that shape the landscape.
Stage means the length of time during which the processes are at work.
Davis was time theorist (Time dependent)
 Evaluation of the Davis’s
Theory
Pros
 The theory is highly simple and applicable
 It is based on careful field observation
 His model is capable of both prediction and historical interpretation of
landform evolution
 Able to synthesis Darwin’s idea and Hutton’s idea
Cons
Davis concept described a rapid rate upliftment of short duration but as
evidenced by plate tectonic theory, upliftment is a slow and gradual process
His model was only focus on fluvial process and he never talked beyond
erosion
Time dependent and sequential assumption
According to him no erosion can start unless upliftment is complete. But it is
natural process that as land rise, the erosion begins.
Even though his initial landforms were a consequece of sudden upliftment, he
did not acknowledge the role of endogenetic process.
13
Is more of monogenetic landform focusing on fluvial process
 Walter Penck’s Slope
Development Theory
Penck, a German Geologist, was influenced by field
observation made in Germany.
He was more concerned about structure and process unlike
Davis.
He was ahistorical in approach (time independent)
He asserted that landform is a consequence of interaction
between internal and external process (Polygenetic
Landforms)
He didn’t use the expressions like stage and evolution.
Instead he used phase and development.

14
 Penck Model of Erosion
According to Penck, upliftment of the land area and
denudation process starts at the same time.

15
 Gilbert‟s Theory: Dynamic
Equilibrium
Gilbert provided the base for the development of the
dynamic equilibrium theory involving time- independent
development of landforms.
According to Gilbert, ―the landscape is the result of two
competing tendencies i.e. tendency towards variability
(when driving force exceeds resisting force) and tendency
towards uniformity (when driving force equals resisting
force)‖.

16
Theory of L.C. King: Landscape Cyclic
Models
L.C. King‘s theory of landform
development is based on his studies of
landforms in arid, semi-arid and savanna
regions of South Africa.
He formulated a set of cyclic models (such
as landscape cycle, epigene cycle,
pediplanation cycle, hillslope cycle, etc.)
and asserted that these are practicable in
other parts of globe as well.
17
 Theory of J.T. Hack
American geomorphologist J.T. Hack made a serious attempt to fill the
conceptual vacuum created by the criticism and rejection of Davisian
evolutionary model of geographical cycle and Penck‘s morphological system.
Hack pointed out that multi-level landscape (polycyclic relief) cannot be
explained in terms of multiple erosion cycle (Davisian notion), rather these
landscapes can be explained in terms of dynamic equilibrium theory.

According to Hack, geomorphic system is an open system and so long as

energy remains constant in the geomorphic system, landscape remains in the
steady state condition despite the lowering in the landscape by denudational
processes. Hack‘s model envisages time-independent development of
landscape. In other words, ―the shape of the landforms reflects the balance
between the resistance of the underlying materials to erosion and the erosive
energy of the active processes‖.

18
The main assumptions of the Hackian
model of landscape development
(a) There is balance between denudational processes and rock
resistance.
(b) There is uniform rate of downwasting in all components of
landscapes.
(c) Differences and characteristics of form are explicable in terms
of spatial relations in which geologic patterns are primary
consideration.
(d) The denudational processes which operate at present have
been carved out of the earth‘s surface landscapes.
(e) There is lithologic adjustment to landforms.
 Slope Forms, Processes, and
Classification
 Slope can be defined as the angle, inclination,
steepness, or gradient of a straight line.
 Slope often is used to describe the steepness of
the ground‘s surface.
 Slope can be measured as the rise (the increase
in elevation in some unit of measure) over the
run (the horizontal distance measured in the
same units as the rise).
Hill slope Model
Genetic Classification of slopes
 Endogenetic Slopes- These slopes originate due
to the processes which originate within the
earth.
 Exogenetic slopes- These slopes are an
outcome of external processes originating at or
near the earth‘s surface.
Forms/Elements of slope
Convex Slope
 5.3. Mass Wasting/Slope Failure and
Related Landforms
 The term mass wasting is sometimes used to describe all processes that
lower the ground surface.
 It is also used more specifically as a synonym of mass movement, which is
the bulk transfer of bodies of rock debris down slopes under the influence of
gravity.
 Mass wasting, is the failure and downs lope movement of rock or
unconsolidated materials in response to gravity.
 This term is sometimes referred to as slope instability and also commonly
called ―landslides.
 Mass wasting happens because tectonic processes have created uplift.
Erosion, driven by gravity, is the inevitable response to that uplift, and
various types of erosion, including mass wasting, have created slopes in the
uplifted regions.
 Slope stability is ultimately determined by two factors: the angle of the slope
and the strength of the materials on it.
1-28
 Classification of Mass Wasting
The three criteria used to describe slope
failures/mass wasting are:
1. Material: Type of material that failed
(typically either bedrock or unconsolidated
sediment)
2. Motion: How the material moved (fall,
slide, or flow).
3. Rate: Speed at which the material moved
29
Type of Slop Failure/Wasting
Cont’d
 Fall: Material drops through the air, vertically or nearly vertically.
 Slide: Material moves as a cohesive mass along a sloping surface.
 Flow: Material moves like a fluid.
32
Causes of Wasting/slope failures
Removal of lateral support through the erosive power of
streams, glaciers, waves, and long shore and tidal currents;
Adding weight naturally to slopes by rain, hail, snow and
water from springs, by accumulation of talus or volcanic
debris, and by human actions such as landfills
Earthquakes, thunder, or vibrations from nearby slope failures
Regional tilting that increases slope angles
Decrease of underlying support by removal of granular and
soluble materials, mining,
Lateral pressure from water in cracks, freezing of water in
cracks, hydration of minerals,
33
Causes of slope failures
5.4. Fluvial Process and Landform
Running water wears away molehills and mountains,
and builds fans, floodplains, and deltas.
 Fluvial Erosional landforms:
Streams
Stream formation relies on an adequate water
supply. Precipitation provides water for the
beginnings of stream formation.
Streams can also be fed by underground
deposits of water. As a stream develops, it
changes width and size, and shapes the land
over which it flows.

36
Each year, streams carry billions of metric tons of sediments
and weathered material to coastal areas. Once a river enters the
ocean, the current slows down, which reduces the potential of
the stream to carry sediment. As a result, streams deposit large
amounts of sediments in the region where they enter the
ocean. The build up of sediments over time forms deltas, such
as the Colorado River Delta.
 Incised meander, a 350-m deep canyon of the San Juan River at
Goosenecks, southern Utah, USA
 Fluvial Depositional Landforms
When streams lose velocity, they lose some of the
energy needed to transport sediment, and deposition of
sediment occurs.
Alluvial fans: A stream‘s velocity lessens and its
sediment load drops when its gradient abruptly
decreases
Deltas: Streams also lose velocity and some of their
capacity to carry sediment when they join larger bodies
of quiet water.
Rejuvenation: It means to make young again.
41
 Drainage System
The term drainage is the flow of water through well-defined channel. It refers to the movement of
water (from rainfall and snowmelt) either over Earth‘s surface or down into the soil and bedrock.

A drainage basin is an entire area drained by a river and its tributaries. It is a natural hydrological
entity which allows surface run-off to a defined channel, drains, streams or river at a particular
point
45
Drainage Density

46
 Factors Determining Drainage
Pattern
Drainage patterns are controlled by following
factors:
i. Initial slope
ii.Lithology and lithological variation.
iii. Structures.
iv. Geologic and geomorphic history of the area.
v. Climate and rainfall of the area.

47
 Types of Drainage Pattern
A. Genetic Classification:
 Consequent stream
 Sub-sequent stream
 Obsequent stream
 Resequent stream
 Insequent stream
 Superimposed stream
 Antecedent stream
B. Internal Drainage based Classification e.g. Sinkhole
C. Spatial Drainage Pattern based Classification
 Dichotomic
 Anastomotic
 Braided Pattern
 Deranged
D. Geomorphic Classification
 Dendritic Drainage Pattern
 Radial Drainage Pattern
 Rectangular Drainage Pattern
 Trellis drainage pattern
 Centripetal Drainage Pattern
 Annular (Circular) Drainage Pattern
48
 Parallel Drainage Pattern
5.5 Aeolian processes and landforms
 Aeolian Landforms are landforms that are formed by the wind's
erosional and depositional actions.
 The world’s deserts and Wind Effects
 Wind Erosion & Ways of wind
Transportation
 Suspension- strong winds cause small particles to stay
airborne for long distances.
 Saltation- causes a bouncing motion of larger particles.
It accounts for most sand transport by wind.
 Deflation- The lowering of the land surface those results
from the wind’s removal of surface particles.
 Abrasion- occurs when particles such as sand rub against
the surface of rocks or other materials.
 ventifacts - Rocks shaped by windblown sediments

50
Ventifacts
Wind Deposition & Types of Dune Deposition
 Wind deposition occurs in areas where wind velocity decreases. As the wind
velocity slows down, some of the windblown sand and other materials cannot stay
airborne, and they drop out of the air stream to form a deposit (dunes) on the
ground.
 Types of Dunes
 Barchan Dunes- crescent shapes form from a small amount of sand
 Transverse Dunes- form series of ridge shapes form from a large amount of sand
 Parabolic Dunes- form U-shapes form from a large amount of sand covered by
minimal vegetation.
 Longitudinal Dunes form series of ridge shapes form from small or large amounts
of sand covered by minimal or no vegetation form parallel to variable wind
direction reach maximum height of 300 m.
5.6 Glacial processes and landforms
 A glacier is a mass of ice on land consisting of compacted and recrystallized snow
that flows under its own weight. It is a moving mass of ice.
 Glaciers modify landscapes by eroding and depositing.

 Glaciers can be classified as one of two types -valley glaciers or continental

glaciers.
 carving action of valley glaciers transitions V-shaped stream valleys into U-shaped
glacial valleys.
Glacial Erosion
 Of all the erosional agents, glaciers are the most powerful
because of their great size, weight, and density.
 When a valley glacier moves, it breaks off pieces of rock
through a process called plucking.
 Small scratches are called striations, and larger ones are
called grooves.
 Valley glaciers also scoop out deep depressions, called
cirques.
 Where two cirques on opposite sides of a valley meet, they
form a sharp, steep ridge called an arête. When there are
glaciers on three or more sides of a mountaintop, the
carving action creates a steep, pyramid-shaped peak. This
is known as a horn.
Glacial trough with valley glaciers
Glacial Deposition
 Glacial till is the unsorted rock, gravel, sand, and clay that
glaciers carry embedded in their ice and on their tops,
sides, and front edges.
 Moraines-Glaciers deposit unsorted ridges of till. Moraines can be
terminal or lateral.
 Melt water contains gravel, sand, and fine silt. When this sediment is
deposited by melt water carried away from the glacier, it is called
outwash.
 Drumlins-Continental glaciers that move over older moraines form
the material into elongated landforms
 Eskers-Streams flowing under melting glaciers leave long, winding
ridges of layered sediments
 kames -is a mound of layered sediment deposited at the retreating
glacier face and is conical in shape.
5.7 Coastal processes and landforms
 Water Waves

Waves are undulations formed by wind blowing over

a water surface. They are caused by turbulence in
airflow generating pressure variations on the
water.
 Wave height: depends on three factors: fetch,
wind duration, and wind speed. Fetch refers to
the expanse of water that the wind blows across.
The longer the wind can blow without being
interrupted (wind duration) over a large area of
water (fetch), the larger the waves will be.
 Breaking waves
 Erosional features
 Wave-cut platforms
 Long Shore Current
 1-67

The processes
within the system
and the appearance
of the coastline
will be controlled
by a number of
physical variables
and possibly
influenced by
human activity.
 1-68

 Generally, as a headland is worn away, a flat erosional surface called a wave-

cut platform is formed.
 Global pattern of tidal range
Chalk cliffs with horizontal shore platform
 1-74

 Karst topography is a topography characterized by landscapes which have

sinkholes due to the dissolution of soluble bedrock, such as limestone, marble
or dolomite.

 The resulting topography can include caves, sinkholes, springs and

disappearing streams. It can sometimes form complex underground drainage
systems.
1-75
 1-76

The resulting calcium ions (Ca2+) and bicarbonate ions are

then carried away in the groundwater.
 The processes of dissolving, called dissolution, and
precipitation of calcite both play a major role in the formation
of limestone caves.
 Caves: is natural underground opening with a
connection to Earth’s surface .
1-77
 1-78

 stalactite- hangs from the cave’s ceiling like icicles and forms gradually.
 stalagmites- As the water drips to the floor of the cave, it may also slowly
build mound-shaped dripstone called stalagmites.
 Sometimes stalactites and stalagmites grow together to form dripstone
columns.
 1-79

 The earth has an infinite variety of landforms. Some parts of the

lithosphere may be rugged and some flat.
 For systematic analysis, landforms can be classify in to different
groups based on d/t classification schemes.

Landform Classification Schemes

I. Genetic classification of landforms: means classification of
landforms by dominant set of geomorphic processes. E.g. fluvial,
glacial, tectonic, Aeolian, etc.
II. Generic classification of landforms : is the description of the
entire group or class of landforms i.e. mountain, plateau, plain,
etc.
III. Classification on the basis of scale and lifespan : First Order,
Second Order, Third Order
1-80
 1-81

 Geomorphic processes are the multifarious chemical and physical

means by which the Earth’s surface undergoes modification.
 They are driven by geological forces emanating from inside the Earth
(endogenic or endogene processes), by forces originating at or near the
Earth’s surface and in the atmosphere (exogenic or exogene
processes), and by forces coming from outside the Earth
(extraterrestrial processes, such as asteroid impacts).
 They include processes of transformation and transfer associated with
weathering, gravity, water, wind, and ice. Mutual interactions between
form and process are the core of geomorphic investigation – form
affects process and process affects form. In a wider setting,
atmospheric processes, ecological processes, and geological processes
influence, and in turn are influenced by, geomorphic process – form
interactions

81
1-82
 1-83

End of the Course!