CHAPTER 7

Adapting work processes

to new technology in order
to reduce cost, improve
fuel economy, improving
environment

1
 INTELLIGENT TRANSPORTATION SYSTEM
 Introduction
 Intelligent Transportation System (ITS) is the
application of computer, electronics, and
communication technologies and
management strategies in an integrated
manner to provide traveler information to
increase the safety and efficiency of the
surface transportation systems.

 These systems involve vehicles, drivers,

passengers, road operators, and managers
all interacting with each other and the
environment, and linking with the complex
infrastructure systems to improve the safety
and capacity of road systems. 2
 CONTD. INTELLIGENT TRANS…
 ITS improves transportation safety and mobility and
enhances global connectivity by means of
productivity improvements achieved through the
integration of advanced communications
technologies into the transportation infrastructure
and in vehicles.

 Intelligent transportation systems encompass a

broad range of wireless and wire line
communication based information and electronics
technologies to better manage traffic and maximize
the utilization of the existing transportation
infrastructure.

 It improves driving experience, safety and capacity

of road systems, reduces risks in transportation,
relieves traffic congestion, improves transportation
efficiency and reduces pollution. 3
 ITS USER SERVICES
 In order to deploy ITS, a framework is
developed highlighting various services
the ITS can offer to the users.

 The number of user services, keep

changing over time when a new service
is added. The services are divided in
eight groups.

 The division of these services is based

on the perspective (a way of thinking about something) of
the organization and sharing of common
technical functions.
4
CONTD. ITS USER…
 Some of the user services offered by ITS
are shown in Fig.1. The eight groups are
described as follows:
1. Travel and traffic management
2. Public transportation operations
3. Electronic payment
4. Commercial vehicle operations
5. Advance vehicle control and
safety systems
6. Emergency management
7. Information management
8. Maintenance and construction
management
5
CONTD. ITS USER…

Fig. 1: user services offered by ITS

6
 CONTD. ITS USER…
1. Travel and traffic management

 The main objective of this group of

services is to use real time information on
the status of the transportation system to
improve its efficiency and productivity and
to mitigate (to make something less harmful) the adverse
environmental impacts of the system.

 This group of user service is further divided

in 10 user services. Most of these services
share information with one another in a
highly integrated manner for the overall
benefit of the road transportation system.
7
 CONTD. ITS USER…
These services are described as below:

i) Pre trip information

 This user service provides information to the travelers about
the transportation system before they begin their trips so that
they can make more informed decisions regarding their time
of departure, the mode to use and route to take to their
destinations.

 The travelers can access this information through computer

or telephone systems at home or work and at major public
places. Pre travel information can be accessed through mobile
phones as shown in Fig. 2.

 Different routes and respective travel time durations indicated

on VMS (variable message signs) are shown in Fig.3. The
information includes real time flow condition, real incidents
and suggested alternate routes, scheduled road construction
and maintenance tasks, transit routes, schedules, fares,
transfers, and parking facilities. 8
CONTD. ITS USER…

Due: Expected to arrive

Fig. 2: Pre trip information Fig. 3: VMS showing routes

9
 CONTD. ITS USER…
ii) En-route driver information

 This user service provides travel related information

to the travelers en-route after they start their trips
through variable message signs (VMS), car radio, or
portable communication devices.

 Fig. 4 shows the various congested and non congested

routes shown on display screen. VMS indicating
different routes and travel time is shown in Fig. 5. This
helps the travelers to better utilize the existing facility
by changing routes etc. to avoid congestion.

 This also provides warning messages for roadway

signs such as stop signs, sharp curves, reduced speed
advisories, wet road condition flashed with in vehicle
displays to the travelers to improve the safety of
operating a vehicle. The information can be presented
as voice output also. 10
CONTD. ITS USER…

Fig. 4: Showing congested Fig. 5: VMS showing routes

routes
and travel times
11
CONTD. ITS USER…
iii) Route guidance

 This service provides information to the

travelers with a suggested route to reach a
specified destination, along with simple
instructions on upcoming turns and other
maneuvers.

 This also provides travelers of all modes the

real-time information about the transportation
system, including traffic conditions, road
closures, and the status and schedule of transit
systems.

 The benefits of this service are reduced delay

and drivers stress levels particularly in an
unfamiliar area. 12
CONTD. ITS USER…
iv) Ride matching and reservation

 This user service provide real-time ride

matching information to travelers in
their homes, offices or other locations,
and assists transportation providers
with vehicle assignments and
scheduling.

 Travelers give information to the

service center and get number of ride
sharing options from which they can
choose the best.
13
CONTD. ITS USER…
v) Traveler Services Information

 This service provides a business directory (a

book containing lists of information) of information on travel-

related services and facilities like the

location, operating hours, and availability of
food, lodging, parking, auto repair, hospitals,
gas stations and police facilities. This also
makes reservations for many of these
traveler services.

 The traveler services information are

accessible in the home, office or other public
locations to help plan trips. These services
are available en-route (while traveling from/to particular place)
also. 14
 CONTD. ITS USER…
vi) Traffic Control

 This service collects the real time data from

the transportation system, processes it into
usable information, and uses it to determine
the optimum assignment of right-of-way to
vehicles and pedestrians.

 This helps in improving the flow of traffic by

giving preference to transit and other high
occupancy vehicles or by adjusting the signal
timing to current traffic conditions.

 The information collected by the Traffic

Control service is also disseminated for use
by many other user services. 15
CONTD. ITS USER…
vii) Incident Management

 This service aims to improve the incident

management and response capabilities of
transportation and public safety officials, the towing
and recovery industry, and others involved in
incident response.

 Advanced sensors (close circuit TV cameras), data

processors and communication technologies are
used to identify incidents quickly and accurately and
to implement response which minimizes traffic
congestion and the effects of these incidents on the
environment and the movement of people and goods.

 Fig. 6 shows the occurrence of incident and its

detection by the center and decision implemented
responding to the incident on a highway pertaining
to incident management. 16
CONTD. ITS USER…

Fig. 6

17
CONTD. ITS USER…
viii) Travel Demand Management

 This user service develop and implement

strategies to reduce the number of single
occupancy vehicles while encouraging
the use of high occupancy vehicles and
the use of more efficient travel mode.

 The strategies adopted are:

1. Congestion pricing
2. Parking management and control
3. Mode change support
4. Telecommuting and alternate
work
schedule. 18
 CONTD. ITS USER…
ix) Emissions Testing and Mitigation

 The main objective of this service is to

monitor and implement strategies to divert
traffic away from sensitive air quality areas,
or control access to such areas using
advanced sensors.

 This also used to identify vehicles emitting

pollutants exceeding the standard values and
to inform drivers to enable them to take
corrective action.

 This helps in facilitating implementation and

evaluation of various pollution control
strategies by authorities. 19
CONTD. ITS USER…
x) Highway Rail Intersection (HRI)

 This service is to provide improved

control of highway and train traffic
to avoid or decrease the severity of
collisions between trains and
vehicles at highway-rail
intersections.

 This also monitors the condition of

various HRI equipments.

20
 CONTD. ITS USER…
2. Public transportation operations

 This group of service is concerned with

improving the public transportation systems
and encouraging their use. Fig. 7 shows
different public transportation facilities. This
group is divided in four services which are
described as below:

i) Public Transportation Management

 This user service collects data through
advanced communications and information
systems to improve the operations of
vehicles and facilities and to automate the
planning and management functions 21
of
CONTD. ITS USER…
This offers three tasks:

a. To provide real-time computer analysis of

vehicles and facilities to improve transit
operations and maintenance by monitoring the
location of transit vehicles, by identifying
deviations from the schedule, and offering
potential solutions to dispatchers and operators.

b. To maintain transportation schedules and to

assure transfer connections from vehicle to
vehicle and between modes to facilitate quick
response to service delays.

c. To enhance security of transit personnel by

providing access management of transit vehicles.
22
CONTD. ITS USER…

Fig. 7: Different public transportation systems

23
 CONTD. ITS USER…
ii) En-Route Transit Information
 This service is intended to provide information on
expected arrival times of the vehicles, transfers, and
connections to travelers after they begin their trips
using public transportation. This also provide real-
time, accurate transit service information on-board
the vehicle, at transit stations and bus stops to
assist travelers in making decisions and modify their
trips underway.

iii) Personalized Public Transit

 The aim of this service is to offer public transport
facility to travelers by assigning or scheduling
vehicles by:

1. Diverting flexibly routed transit vehicles.

24
CONTD. ITS USER…
2. Assigning privately operated vehicles
on demand which include small buses,
taxicabs, or other small, shared-ride
vehicles.

 Under this service, travelers provide

information of their trip origin and
destination to service station. The
center then assigns the closest
vehicle to service the request and to
inform the travelers regarding arrival
of such vehicles well in advance to
reduce their anxiety.
25
 CONTD. ITS USER…
iv) Public Travel Security

 This user service creates a secure

environment for public transportation
operators and support staff and monitors
the environment in transit facilities, transit
stations, parking lots, bus stops and on-
board transit vehicles and generates
alarms (either automatically or manually)
when necessary.

 It also provides security to the systems

that monitor key infrastructure of transit
(rail track, bridges, tunnels, bus guide
ways, etc.).
26
CONTD. ITS USER…
3. Electronic payment
 This user service allows travelers to pay for
transportation services with a common
electronic payment medium for different
transportation modes and functions.

 Toll (money that you need to pay to use a particular road or bridge)
collection, transit fare payment, and parking
payment are linked through a multi-modal
multi-use electronic system.

 With an integrated payment system a traveler

driving on a toll road, using parking lot would
be able to use the same electronic device to
pay toll, parking price and the transit fare. Fig.
8 shows the electronic payment facility by
radio car tag.
27
CONTD. ITS USER…

Fig. 8. Electronic payment facility

28
 CONTD. ITS USER…
4. Commercial Vehicle (CV) operations
The aim is to improve the efficiency and
safety of commercial vehicle operations.

This involves following services:

i). CV electronic clearance

ii). Automated road side safety inspection
iii). On-board safety monitoring administrative
process
iv) Commercial Vehicle Administrative Processes
v). Hazardous material incident response
vi. Freight Mobility
29
 CONTD. ITS USER…
i) Commercial Vehicle Electronic Clearance
 This service allows enforcement
personnel to electronically check safety
status, vehicle’s credentials, and size and
weight data for the commercial vehicles
before they reach an inspection site.

 The authorities send the illegal or

potentially unsafe vehicles only for
inspection and bypass safe and legal
carriers (or transporters) to travel without
stopping for compliance checks at weigh
stations and other inspection sites.

30
CONTD. ITS USER…
ii) Automated Roadside Safety
Inspection

 At inspection station the safety

requirements are checked more
quickly and more accurately during a
safety inspection using automated
inspection capabilities.

 Advanced equipments are used to

check brake, steering and suspension
performance and also the driver’s
performance pertaining to driver
alertness and fitness for duty.
31
 CONTD. ITS USER…

iii) On-board Safety Monitoring

 This service monitors the driver,
vehicle, and cargo and notify the driver,
carrier, and, also to the enforcement
personnel, if an unsafe situation arises
during operation of the vehicle.

 This user service also assures freight

container, trailer, and commercial
vehicle integrity by monitoring on-board
sensors for a breach (a failure to do something that
must be done by law) or tamper (interfere with and damage
something) event.

32
CONTD. ITS USER…
iv) Commercial Vehicle Administrative
Processes

 This service allows carriers to purchase

credentials such as fuel use taxes, trip
permits, over-weight permit, or hazardous
material permits automatically.

 The mileage and fuel reporting and

auditing components are provided to the
carriers automatically which reduce
significant amount of time and
paperwork.

33
 CONTD. ITS USER…
v) Hazardous Materials Incident
Response
 This user service provides immediate
information regarding the types and
quantities of hazardous materials present
at incident location to the emergency
personnel in order to facilitate a quick and
appropriate response.

 The emergency personnel are informed

regarding shipment of any sensitive
hazardous materials so that timely action
could be taken in case of accidents.

34
CONTD. ITS USER…
vi) Freight Mobility

 This service provides information

to the drivers, dispatchers, and
inter-modal transportation
providers, enabling carriers to take
advantage of real-time traffic
information, as well as vehicle and
load location information, to
increase productivity.

35
ADVANCED FLEET MANAGEMENT
SYSTEM
 The main objective of An Advanced Fleet
Management System (AFMS) is to provide a bus
operator with an efficient operation tool that
would reduce its operation costs while ensuring a
good quality of service.

 It is basically composed of a central computer,

equipment on-board for each bus or tramway
vehicle, a radio network linking both of them, and
other positioning, information, communication,
control and safety equipment.

 The demanding requirements in terms of

transmission speed and regulation reliability,
safety measures, equipment robustness, etc.
make an AFMS significantly different36 from a
 CONTD. ADVANCED FLEET…
 TransCity – a fleet management solution

 The TransCity Advanced Fleet system has

the capacity to manage a fleet of
heterogeneous vehicles which can consist
of types of following vehicles:

 Bus (minibus, standard, articulated, mega-

bus (double Deck))

 Trolley bus (standard, articulated)

 Tram (simple train, train doubles (double Deck) )

 Vehicle of service or maintenance 37

 CONTD. ADVANCED FLEET…
The system offers the following benefits:

 Efficient safe operation of the fleet by

providing Intelligent radio-communication
system;

 Continuous vehicle positioning (with or

without GPS);

 Managing schedules, headway and

interchanges ;

 Management of priority at traffic lights;

 Integration with vehicle and crew scheduling

systems; 38
 CONTD. ADVANCED FLEET…
o Provide real-time information to users

 On board-vehicles
 At stops and interchange stations

Directly through Internet or mobile phone communications

o Provide condition monitoring by

 Real-time transmission of operating alarms

 Permanent monitoring of vehicle mileage, etc.

o Monitor the performance of the network by

providing

 Daily reports and statistics

 Analysis of operating data 39
TRANSCITY GENERAL ARCHITECTURE
 General Description
 The TransCity Advanced Fleet
Management system consists of:

 A central system intended to collect the

information of all the vehicles, to
coordinate the movements of vehicles
and to transmit the relevant information
to all the external systems;

 Specific posts in the garages and a

short-range radio system, used to
exchange the information relative to the
configuration and to the operational
data; 40
 CONTD. TRANSCITY…

 An on board system on each of the

vehicles of the fleet;

 A long-range radio system allowing the

communication voice and data between
the central system and all the
participants (vehicles, mobiles);

 A set of equipments (bus/tram signs) or

of external systems (Information system
of the Customer) with which the
TransCity Advanced Fleet Management
system is going to exchange information ;
41
 CONTD. TRANSCITY…
The following figure displays the general architecture of the system

Beacon: a radio transmitter whose

signal helps fix the position

Fig. 2 : TransCity general architecture

42
 CONTD. TRANSCITY…
 Central Architecture

 Real-time Server
The Real-time Server provides the
functions:
 Fleet management functions;
 The management of the voice calls;
 The management of the distress
calls;
 The management of the
transmission of data in interface
with the server of radio
communication or nodal radio;
43
 CONTD. TRANSCITY…
 The processing of help in the
interventions;

 Control of the operation (localization …);

 Enhanced service control management;
 Driver Management;
 Supervision and management of the
alarms;

 The management of the interfaces with

the external systems (reference table data
operation, centralized server by
management of crossroads);
44
 CONTD. TRANSCITY…
 Delay Server

 The delay server allows the user to do

statistical analyses by querying the database
with predefined reports or by building
themselves their own reports.

 The delay server provides the treatment of

automatic removal of obsolete data
(exceeding online archive of statistical data).

 Note that the system can restore previously

saved data and can exceed the nominal
duration of archiving to perform analyses
over periods greater.
45
 CONTD. TRANSCITY…
 Garage Architecture

 Garage Server
 To exchange larger data volumes with embedded
computers in vehicles, a repository server (the place for
coursework and projects that use databases) and a WiFi (local area
wireless computer networking) infrastructure are
implemented at each garage.

 The garage server is responsible for:

 Distributing the necessary data to the onboard
computers in vehicles to ensure its functions,
including location, passenger information (including
talking dictionaries and text), monitoring schedule
(including hourly forecasts), both for the current
operating day or the next day;

 Distributing a new version of embedded applications.

46
 CONTD. TRANSCITY…

 Distributing an implementation schedule for each

day defining operational lines, type of schedules
that is applicable, the version numbers of the
data to apply and the version number of the
application to implement.

 Collecting statistical data and laboratory

developed and recorded by the onboard computer,
and make these data available in the central
system in order to import it into the delay server.

 This storage capacity allows the onboard

computer to have a fully autonomous mode of
operation over several days, whether in the event
of unavailability of communication with the
garage server or unavailability of the central
system.
47
 CONTD. TRANSCITY…
 Wireless Communication Network

 A communication network type wireless WiFi

802.11 b/g/n is used to perform data exchange
with the vehicles.

 Data exchanges take place in areas of storage

deposits: for this purpose, a collection of
databases and antennas is deployed inside the
deposit to obtain optimal coverage of all areas.

 Data exchanges are based on standard TCP

(Transmission Control Protocol)/ IP(Internet Protocol) implemented on

Ethernet networks (special system of wires used for connecting

computer networks around the world) such as FTP(File Transfer Protocol).

This protocol ensures a level of integrity and

good safety during the transfer process. 48
 CONTD. TRANSCITY…
 On Board Vehicle Architecture

Fig. 2 On Board Vehicle Architecture

49
 CONTD. TRANSCITY…
The on Board Vehicle Architecture manages:

 Dialogue with the Radio Transmitter/Receiver to

 Transmit messages to the Central
 Receive messages from the Central

 Communication with the tag reader for trams

 The acquisition of odometer counter
 The acquisition of unlocking doors
 The acquisition of GPS coordinates for buses and in
option for trams
 Voice communication (driver, passengers with Public
Address System)
 All information provided by the existing subsystems like:

 Passenger Counting System or sensors

 Internal Vehicle Computer if any
 Ticketing system
 Head Signs
 Video Security System
50
 CONTD. TRANSCITY…
 Functional Architecture

 Signing On

 Vehicle signing-on sets the relationship

between a vehicle and a block (running
board) with a view to defining the vehicle’s
route and schedule. The operator carries out
vehicle signing-on by the Central.

 The signing-on process can be realized by the

driver on board or by the operator on central.
Only the line number is used, which will link
the vehicle to the topology, and a block
identifier which will allow the selection of the
journeys the vehicle is expected to follow.
51
 CONTD. TRANSCITY…
 These data are transmitted to the vehicle
over the radio link. If the check succeeds,
the signing-on is registered both on-board
and at the control centre.

 If a vehicle leaves a garage without a

planned journey, the signing-on process can
be performed by using ‘special’ block
identifiers.

 Once the signing-on process has been

carried out on garage exit, it is not required
any further, apart from when there is a
change in the vehicle block, or if the vehicle
goes back to the garage.
52
 CONTD. TRANSCITY…

 The signing-off process or vehicle end-

of-service is implemented at the end of
operation of a vehicle automatically
when the vehicle enters the garage
and the block is finished.

 For each block, the AFM system

monitors the time of signing-on.

 If it is not carried out at the planned

time (within an authorized delay
period), a ‘late signing-on’ alarm is
triggered. 53
 CONTD. TRANSCITY…
 Vehicle Location

 The location of vehicle is the basic

information used by the TransCity Advanced
Fleet system.

 Vehicle location is sufficiently accurate to

permit the management of relative positions
(for example when one vehicle is running
behind another), positions on common
sections, stop and terminal arrivals and
departures, passenger information at stops,
and the approach to intersections equipped
with traffic lights if necessary.

54
 CONTD. TRANSCITY…
 The location process is based on GPS
technology for buses and on beacon (a radio
transmitter whose signal helps fix the position) technology for
trams. It is provided by the embedded
systems carried on board the vehicles,
which have the information and sensors
necessary to identify the position of the
vehicle on its route.

 The control centre obtains the position of

each vehicle by polling (survey) the vehicle
fleet cyclically with location request
messages. The vehicle location polling
cycle depends on the long-range radio
resources and the refresh frequency.
55
 CONTD. TRANSCITY…
 The vehicles may be located at any point
on the network, and may be on the
operating line routes, at stations, at
terminus or in the garage.

 For each bus in operation, location is

determined by:
The on-board system, using the information
provided by the GPS satellites
An odometer connected to the gearbox output
which delivers pulses proportionally to the
distance travelled
A single-axis gyrometer oriented along the
vertical axis which generates a signal
proportional to the angular velocity of the bus in
turns
 Door open / closed contacts 56
 CONTD. TRANSCITY…
 Benefits
 The benefits for a bus/tram operator to
implement an AFMS

 The primary benefit is to utilize a minimum

number of buses and capture maximum revenue
in return of a good service provided to satisfied
customer. It translates in:

An efficient real time regulation, with voice communication

reduced to the minimum, using an appropriate radio
network to carry both data and voice transmission,

A boost in the staff efficiency (for example with computer

assisted scenarios for decision making process, precise
shift management, etc.),

Last but not least, savings in other areas as fuel

consumption, asset management and maintenance works.
57
 CONTD. TRANSCITY…
 The benefits of an AFMS for a bus or tram passenger

 In parallel to the reduction of operation costs, it

shall provide to the users a perceived increase in
the quality of service and comfort.

 This goal is largely achieved due to:

 Better adherence between the published time tables and the

actual bus/tram arrival times;

 Information provided via the web and at bus or tram stops, on

next arrivals when waiting for your vehicle, especially in case
or delays/problems;

 Modern monitoring and information tools specifically

implemented for care and security of passengers;

 The combination of the above, heavily impacting on the

passengers and drivers stress, provides at the end a general
feeling of better satisfaction.
58
ENERGY MANAGEMENT
Green fleet management - Introduction

 Green fleet management involves managing vehicles with a

view to minimizing their fuel use, emissions and costs.

 The most significant emissions are:

• Carbon dioxide (CO2).
• Nitrogen dioxide (NO2) or nitrogen
oxides (NOx).
•Particulate matter (PM).

 Most organizations are primarily focused on reducing carbon

emissions because of the link with taxation. Others view
them in the context of environmental policy, particularly in
relation to climate change.

 Poor local air quality, caused by NO x and PM emissions, is a

major issue, particularly in urban areas. These local air
pollutants may be the primary concern for some
organizations.
59
CONTD. ENERGY MAN…
 Alternatives to petrol and diesel
1. Hybrid
 Hybrid cars use both electric motors and a
traditional engine to drive the vehicle. Initially,
hybrids used petrol engines, but diesel hybrids are
now available in the UK as well.

 The potential advantages are that they run on petrol

or diesel and emit less CO2, NOx and PM. Many small
and medium sized hybrid cars fall within the current
Greener Vehicle Discount criteria and they typically
have a very good environmental performance in
urban, stop-start driving conditions.

 The potential disadvantages are that the vehicles

have a price premium (a sum of money paid in addition to a normal
price) and there are a limited number of models
currently available. They may not be the best choice
for predominantly motorway use. 60
 CONTD. ENERGY MAN…

2. Plug-in vehicles- Pure-electric

vehicle (Pure-EV)

 Pure-EVs are powered in full by a battery that can be

plugged directly into the mains. The new generation of
plug-in cars have a typical range of 80 to 100 miles on
a full charge, which is adequate for the commuting (to
travel regularly by bus, train, car etc.) and daily driving patterns of
many people.

 Pure-EVs will have passed the stringent (strictly controlled)

safety testing demanded for conventional vehicles and
in terms of overall performance, they will be suitable
for normal use including journeys outside of urban
areas.

 Efficient diesel vehicles are likely to be better for long

distance motorway driving. 61
 CONTD. ENERGY MAN…
3. Plug-In hybrid vehicle (PHV)
 PHVs are vehicles with a plug-in battery and an internal
combustion engine. Typically they have a pure-electric range
between 10 and 30 miles, after which the vehicle reverts to
petrol or diesel hybrid mode.
4. Extended-range electric vehicle (E-REV)
 Extended-range electric vehicles are driven from a battery, with
an internal combustion engine powered generator on board. E-
REVs have a shorter battery range than pure EVs, typically 40
miles. Range is extended by the on-board generator providing
additional miles of mobility.

 The potential advantages include no tailpipe emissions at point

of use (in electric drive mode for PHV and E-REVs), low fuel
costs, and a full discount for the London congestion charge.
They are currently exempt from vehicle excise (tax on goods for
domestic market) duty and exempt from company car tax and van
benefit tax.

 The potential disadvantages are high purchase price, and
limited range. Vans may have a reduced payload (quantity of cargo
that a vehicle can carry) compared with a conventional vehicle with
62
 CONTD. ENERGY MAN…
5. LPG (liquefied petroleum gas)
 LPG is a blend of propane (a colorless gas found in natural gas and petroleum)
and butane (a gas produced from petroleum), produced either as a by-
product of oil refining, or from natural gas (methane) fields. As an
alternative fuel, LPG is most suitable for use in cars and light
vans.

 Potential benefits include significantly lower NOx and PM

emissions compared to diesel and lower CO2 emissions compared
to petrol vehicles.

 LPG fuel is currently about half the cost of petrol and diesel but
fuel efficiency is less than that of conventional fuels, so typically
overall costs per mile are around 25% lower than petrol and about
the same as diesel.

 The potential disadvantages are that there are few vehicles

produced by manufacturers, marginally higher CO2 emissions than
diesel and the LPG tank can reduce load space and payload.

 A refuelling infrastructure is in place but the fuel is less available

than petrol or diesel. The upfront (paid in advance) cost of conversion
may be, prohibitive (too expensive) and it can reduce residual
63 (leftover)
 CONTD. ENERGY MAN…
 Biofuels
 Biofuel is a broad term encompassing a range of fuels made from
organic, carbon-based material such as wood chippings, other plant
material or waste oil. Three examples relevant to transport are
biodiesel, bioethanol and biogas, and the potential advantages and
disadvantages of each are summarized below:

6. Biodiesel: It is a renewable fuel that is produced from the oil of

crops including oilseed rape (a plant with a bright yellow flowers),
sunflowers and soya beans, as well as from waste cooking oils. It is
included in standard pump fuel at a relatively weak blend of up to
7% biodiesel and 93% ultra-low sulphur diesel.

 Blends of up to 7% can be used in all diesel engines without

modification. Biodiesel in concentrations above 7% is available from
selected outlets. For more details visit Biodiesel Filling Stations.
Some manufacturers will allow concentrations higher than 7% to be
used; however additional servicing may be required.

 Biodiesel can provide significant reductions in CO 2 from ‘well to

wheel’, although this can vary considerably depending on the source
and supplier of the fuel. Further details are available from the
Department for Transport. Additionally, oxides of nitrogen, a smog-
forming (a mixture of fog and smoke or other airborne pollutants such as exhaust fumes)
gas, are slightly higher in biodiesel than with ultra-low sulphur 64 diesel.
 CONTD. ENERGY MAN…
7.Bioethanol: It is another example of a liquid
biofuel. It is made from starch plants (like corn,
wheat and cassava (edible root of plant)), sugar plants
(beet and cane), and sometimes cellulose plants
(trees). It is included in standard pump fuel in a
relatively weak blend of up to 5% ethanol and 95%
unleaded (not containing tetraethyl lead) petrol.

 A limited number of vehicles in the UK are modified

to use an 85% concentration of ethanol (E85). This
fuel is sold through very few outlets and would not
be a practical proposition for most users. However,
modified vehicles will run on normal pump petrol.

 The potential benefit of bioethanol is that there

can be significant reductions in CO2 emissions
compared to fossil fuels, though once again this
can vary depending on the source and supplier of
the fuel. 65
 CONTD. ENERGY MAN…
8.Biogas, or Liquid Biomethane (LBM) : It is is a renewable
alternative fuel produced by breaking down organic matter
by microbiological activity.

 Methane, the main component of biogas, is processed to the

same specification as natural gas and is either fed into the
piped network or is stored as compressed natural gas (CNG)
for road vehicles.

 The potential advantages are substantial CO2 benefits,

depending on the waste products used to produce the fuel
but likely to be at least a 60% saving; also NOx and PM
emissions are very low compared to diesel and petrol. Some
vans which are able to use biogas are available from
mainstream manufacturers.

 Disadvantages include a lack of a public refuelling

infrastructure and the high upfront cost of buying or
converting suitable vehicles. Finally, CNG tanks require a
significant amount of space, and are heavy (hence66normally
 FUEL MANAGEMENT
Fuel monitoring
 Fuel contributes 25-30% to a vehicle’s whole-
life costs and is rising. It’s not a fixed overhead
that has to be accepted, it is a controllable
cost that varies according to vehicle type,
driving style, vehicle maintenance and mileage.

 An accurate system for monitoring the fuel

economy (mpg) of individual vehicles and
drivers is key to maximizing the performance of
vehicles and minimizing their fuel consumption.

 The two determinants of fuel economy must be

captured on a regular basis; the distance
covered by each vehicle and the volume of fuel
used.
67
 CONTD. FUEL MANA…
 Armed with this data, it’s possible to compare
the performance of vehicles and drivers, and
identify opportunities for efficiency
improvements.

 For small fleets, a manual system such as a

simple spreadsheet is often the best way to
monitor fuel use and mileage. Using fuel cards
can help as most suppliers will provide fuel
economy reports as part of their service.

 In the absence of any training, the fuel

consumption achieved by drivers is, on average,
approximately 15% higher than the vehicle
manufacturer’s official combined mpg figure.
68
 MILEAGE MANAGEMENT
 Mileage monitoring
 Vehicle mileage should be monitored to
identify under-utilized vehicles or high
mileage drivers, and to question
whether there are more cost-effective
and efficient methods of conducting
core business activity.

 The first step is to audit your

organization’s travel patterns, using
data from fuel card reports, mileage
claims and other relevant sources to
establish a baseline from which to
work.
69
 CONTD. MILEAGE…
 Key points

• Monitoring and managing mileage can deliver

significant cost and emissions savings
without impacting on business performance.
Over-generous mileage rates incentivize
unnecessary mileage. Free fuel for private
use encourages unnecessary mileage and in
many cases is not cost-effective for the driver.

• Consider alternative travel options to driving,

such as public transport.

Effective route planning can reduce mileage.

70