Logical

Fallacies
I. Introduction
to Logical
Fallacies
 Logical fallacies are flawed patterns of
reasoning that occur when there is a
disconnect between the premises and the
conclusion of an argument

A. Definition of These errors undermine the logical validity

Logical of an argument, making it unreliable and
potentially misleading

Fallacies
Logical fallacies can take various forms,
such as mistakes in deductive reasoning,
flaws in the use of evidence, or deceptive
rhetorical techniques
 Recognizing logical fallacies is essential for
critical thinking and effective
communication

B. Importance
of Recognizing By identifying fallacious reasoning,
individuals can avoid being deceived or
making flawed arguments themselves
Logical
Fallacies
Understanding logical fallacies helps in
constructing and evaluating sound
arguments, making informed decisions, and
engaging in rational discourse
 Logical arguments consist of premises that are
intended to support a conclusion

C. The
Structure of The structure of a logical argument typically
involves deductive or inductive reasoning
Logical
Arguments
Deductive reasoning aims to provide a conclusion
that necessarily follows from the given premises,
while inductive reasoning aims to establish a
conclusion that is likely but not guaranteed based
on the premises
II. Informal
Fallacies
 The ad hominem fallacy occurs when an
argument attacks the person making the
argument instead of addressing the
argument itself

A. Ad It involves irrelevant personal attacks

rather than engaging with the merits of
Hominem the argument

This fallacy attempts to discredit an

argument by discrediting the person
presenting it
Example

+ Example:
+ Person A: "I think we should invest in renewable energy to
combat climate change."
+ Person B: "Why should we listen to you? You're not even an
expert in the field."
B. Appeal to
Ignorance
+ The appeal to ignorance fallacy occurs
when an argument asserts that something
must be true or false because it has not
been proven otherwise
+ It assumes that a lack of evidence is
evidence in itself, which is logically
unsound
+ Example: "No one has proven that aliens
don't exist, so they must exist."
Example

+ Example:
+ "No one has proven that aliens don't exist, so they must be
real."
Begging the Question

+ Begging the question is a fallacy that occurs when the

conclusion of an argument is assumed within the premises,
essentially using circular reasoning. The argument appears to
prove something, but in reality, it just restates the same point in
different words.
Example

+ "God exists because the Bible says so, and we know the Bible is
true because it is the word of God."
C. False Dilemma /
False Alternatives
+ The false dilemma fallacy occurs
when an argument presents only two
options or extremes as though they are
the only possibilities, ignoring other
potential alternatives
+ It oversimplifies the issue by falsely
limiting the available choices
Example

+ "You're either with us or against us."

Red Herring

+ The red herring fallacy involves diverting attention from the

main issue by introducing an unrelated topic or argument. It
attempts to distract the audience from the original point and
deceive them by focusing on something else.
Example

+ "Instead of discussing the proposed tax reforms, let's talk about

how hardworking I am and how much I've achieved in my
career."
D. Straw Man

+ The straw man fallacy occurs when an

argument misrepresents or distorts an
opponent's position to make it easier
to attack
+ It creates a false version of the
opponent's argument that is easier to
refute
+ Example: Person A: "We should
invest in improving public schools."
Example

+ Example:
+ Person A: "I think we should invest more in public education."
+ Person B: "So, you're saying we should throw money at failing
schools without accountability?"
E. Hasty
Generalization
+ The hasty generalization fallacy occurs
when a conclusion is drawn from
insufficient or biased evidence
+ It relies on limited or unrepresentative
samples to make broad generalizations
+ Example: "I met two people from
Country X, and they were rude.
Therefore, all people from Country X
must be rude."
Example

+ "I met two people from Country X, and they were rude.
Therefore, all people from Country X must be rude."
F. Slippery Slope

+ The slippery slope fallacy occurs when it is

argued that a particular action will inevitably
lead to a series of increasingly negative
consequences without sufficient evidence
+ It assumes a chain reaction of events without
considering alternative possibilities
+ Example: "If we allow same-sex marriage,
soon people will start marrying animals."
Example

+ Example:
+ "If we allow same-sex marriage, soon people will start marrying
animals."
Bandwagon Fallacy

+ The bandwagon fallacy occurs when an argument is based on

the assumption that because something is popular or widely
accepted, it must be true, correct, or valid. This fallacy appeals
to the idea that "everyone is doing it" or that the majority
opinion must be the correct one.
Example

+ Everyone is using the latest social media app.

+ Therefore, the app must be the best and most useful one.
G. Tu Quoque

+ The tu quoque fallacy, also known as the

appeal to hypocrisy, occurs when a person
avoids addressing the argument by pointing
out the hypocrisy or inconsistency of the
opponent
+ It disregards the validity of the argument
based on the perceived moral failings of the
person making the argument
Example

+ Person A: "You should quit smoking. It's bad for your health."
+ Person B: "Well, you're not exactly a paragon of health either!"
 The appeal to authority fallacy occurs when
an argument relies on the opinion or
testimony of an authority figure rather than
presenting evidence or sound reasoning

H. Appeal to It assumes that the authority is always

correct and that their opinion alone is
sufficient to support the argument
Authority

Example: "Dr. Smith, a renowned physicist,

believes in astrology, so astrology must be
valid."
Example

+ "Dr. Smith, a renowned physicist, believes in astrology, so

astrology must be valid."
 The genetic fallacy occurs when an
argument is dismissed based on its
origin or history rather than
evaluating its merits

I. Genetic It attempts to discredit the argument

by associating it with a particular
Fallacy source or background

Example: "You can't trust her opinion

on climate change because she used
to work for an oil company."
Example

+ "You can't trust her opinion on climate change because she used
to work for an oil company."
 Circular reasoning, also known as circular
logic, occurs when the conclusion of an
argument is already assumed within the
premises

J. Circular The argument essentially repeats itself,

providing no real evidence or logical
Reasoning progression

Example: "I know the book is true

because it says so, and I believe it because
it's true."
Example

+ "The Bible is true because God wrote it, and we know God
exists because the Bible says so."
K. Fallacy of False Cause

+ The fallacy of false cause occurs when a causal relationship is

assumed between two events or phenomena without sufficient
evidence to support the claim. It confuses correlation with
causation.
Example

+ "Since the introduction of smartphones, the rate of depression

has increased. Therefore, smartphones cause depression."
V. How to
Identify
Logical
Fallacies
A. Recognizing
Common Patterns
+ Logical fallacies often follow
specific patterns or structures
+ By familiarizing oneself with these
patterns, one can more easily
identify and categorize fallacious
reasoning
B. Analyzing Assumptions
and Premises

+ Carefully examining the

assumptions and premises
presented in an argument can
reveal any logical gaps or flawed
reasoning
C. Examining Evidence
and Support
+ Assessing the quality and relevance
of the evidence and support offered
in an argument can help identify
fallacious reasoning
+ Look for logical inconsistencies,
biased sources, or insufficient
evidence
D. Seeking Counterarguments
and Alternative Explanations

+ Considering alternative
perspectives and counterarguments
can help uncover fallacies and
strengthen one's critical thinking
skills
+ Exploring different viewpoints can
reveal flaws in the reasoning
presented
VI.
Applications
of Logical
Fallacies
A. Media and
Advertising
+ Logical fallacies are commonly used
in media and advertising to
manipulate and persuade audiences
+ By understanding these fallacies,
individuals can become more
discerning consumers of information
and avoid being swayed by deceptive
tactics
B. Politics and Public
Discourse
+ Logical fallacies are prevalent in
political debates and public
discourse
+ Recognizing fallacies allows
individuals to evaluate arguments
critically, engage in informed
discussions, and avoid being
influenced by flawed reasoning
C. Science and
Skepticism
+ Logical fallacies can also occur in
scientific debates and discussions
+ Distinguishing between sound
scientific reasoning and fallacious
arguments is essential for
understanding the validity of
scientific claims
D. Personal Relationships and
Everyday Conversations

+ Logical fallacies can also occur in

personal interactions
+ Being able to identify fallacies in
everyday conversations can
improve communication, promote
understanding, and prevent
misunderstandings
VII. Conclusion

+ In conclusion, understanding logical fallacies

is essential for critical thinking, effective
communication, and avoiding being deceived
by flawed arguments
+ By familiarizing oneself with different types
of fallacies, analyzing arguments critically,
and employing strategies to counteract
fallacious reasoning, individuals can enhance
their ability to engage in rational discourse
and make well-informed decisions