BED 101: RESEARCH

METHODS AND STATISTICS

DR M CHAURAYA
 Overview of the module

Conceptual framework: Research in Education

Research problem
Research ethics
The literature review
Research questions and Hypotheses
Sampling techniques
External and internal validity in research
Research designs
Data collection instruments and procedures
 Module overview (contd.)

Data collection, organization and presentation

Data analysis
Hypotheses testing
Research project presentation
Writing a research report
 Module assessment

Continuous Assessment (CA) consists of one major

assignment and one test – each with a weighting of
20%
Final examination – weighting 60%
 Assignment

Topic:
 The world is facing some serious issues which different countries and communities need to
respond to urgently. Among these issues re: Climate Change; Disaster and Risk
Management; Poverty; Health; and Gender Equality.
 Select ONE of the issues stated above. Design a research proposal on how you would go about
researching on the impact of that issue in a local community of your choice (urban or rural).
 Use the following structure for your proposal:
 Background/Motivation of the study (half a page maximum) (15)
 Statement of the problem (a paragraph) (7)
 Research questions (at least three) (12)
 Significance of the study (half a page maximum) (10)
 Assumptions of the study (at least three) (6)
 The research design (half a page maximum) (15)
 Population, sample and sampling procedures (a page maximum) (20)
 Description of the data collection instruments that you would use (half a page max) (15)

 You are advised to adhere to the maximum lengths indicated for each aspect of your
proposal.
 Presentation: Typed, using Times New Roman; Font Size 12; and 1.5 Line Spacing.
 Due Date: …………………….
 Research in Education

Research: Creswell (2012) – process of steps used to

collect and analyse information to increase our
understanding of an issue
Search for knowledge
a way of solving problems scientifically
a systematic effort to gain knowledge in any discipline
Involves the collection, analysis and interpretation of
data
Critical in coming up with new theories, modifying or
nullifying existing theory
 Sources of knowledge

Knowledge originates from our desire to know

Sources of knowledge include:
1. Learned Authority
Refers to authority such as of a teacher, parent or an
expert
Such authority may be based on knowledge or
experience
Could be a book/journal/internet
 Sources of knowledge(contd)

2. Tradition
Refers to culture, religion etc as sources of
knowledge
 E.g. manner of greeting elders, dress code, communication
modes.
Long established customs are sources of knowledge
3. Experience
Our personal experience in matters of problem
solving is a fundamental source of knowledge
 E.g. experience in teaching particular topics within a subject
discipline, handling indiscipline at school level
 Sources of knowledge (contd)

4. Scientific method

4.1 Empiricism
 Linked to relying on what our senses tell us
 E.g. through a combination of hearing and seeing we come to
know the sound of a bus.
4.2 Rationalism
 refers to mental reflection or ideas
 Involves deductive (general to specific) and inductive (specific
to general) reasoning i.e. we accept the logical
interconnectedness between concepts .
 Educational research

Ary et al (2009) – the application of the scientific

approach to the study of educational problems
Creswell (2012) – is the systematic application of
scientific method to solving educational problems
Educational research aims at solving educational
problems in a systematic and scientific manner
It is used to understand, explain, predict human
behaviour and actions
It deals with educational problems regarding
learners and teachers.
 Educational research (contd)

It discovers and generates new knowledge

It involves individuals (learners, teachers,
administrators, parents) and institutions (schools,
colleges, universities)
It is linked to making educational processes more
effective
 Why study Educational research

Research is now one of the 21 st Century competencies,

and one of the competencies in the schools curriculum
To become research literate
We live in a society that's driven by research.
To improve our critical thinking skills.
To learn how to read and critically evaluate published
research.
To learn how to design and conduct research in case the
need arises one day
To determine implications of research findings on our
practice – improvement of practice
 Education for Sustainable Development (ESD)
and Research
 Educational practitioners need to be knowledgeable about ESD issues
 Education should endow school graduates with 21st Century
competencies, and research is one of them
 Key issues that need to be researched and understood within local
communities include:
 Gender Equality
 Poverty
 Disaster and Risk Management
 Health
 Global Warming and Climate Change
 Human Rights
 Peace and Justice
 Children’s Rights
 Global Citizenship
 ESD Competencies developed through research

Creativity and Innovation

Critical Thinking
Problem Solving
Communication
Collaboration
Technological literacy
Enterprising skills
Leadership and Responsibility
Every teacher needs to be endowed with these
competencies if they are to be relevant for the 21st Century
and beyond
 Steps in the process of research – the research
cycle

The process of research consists of six steps

 1. Identifying a research problem
 2. Reviewing the literature
 3. Specifying the purpose of research
 4.Collecting data
 5. Analysing and interpreting the data
 6. Reporting and evaluating research
 Types of research

1. Basic/fundamental research

Usually carried out in a lab or with animals
Involves development of knowledge/theory
It is usually concerned with establishing principles of
learning e.g. experiments by Skinner with cats gave
the principle of conditioning and reinforcement
It uses empirical/experimental data to formulate,
expand or evaluate theory
Is designed to add to knowledge and influence
practice/behaviour
 Types of research (contd)

2. Applied research

 Makes use of existing knowledge, theories or research findings
in addressing an issue of concern
 Aims to solve an immediate problems
 Leads to the development of interventions programs aimed at

improving the education process

 Focused on answering practical questions to provide relatively

immediate solutions
 Localised in nature; replication of other studies
 Types of research (contd)

3. Action research

 Focuses on solving practitioner’s local problems.
 It is not concerned with whether the results are generalisable

to any other setting

 Its primary goal is to solve a problem, not contribution to

science
 Teachers who are action researchers are constantly observing

their students for patterns and thinking about ways to improve

instruction, classroom management etc
 The teacher is part and parcel of the solution strategy
 The research problem

All research begins with a research problem which

has to be identified
Research starts after the problem is recognised and
thought thorough
1. What is a research problem
Creswell (2012)- is an educational issue or concern
that motivates the need for conducting research
A dissonance in practice; an observed deficiency; a
gap in knowledge; a worrying situation; a community
problem, etc. are all examples of research problems
 Identifying a research problem

 Specify an issue to study by identifying a broad area in a

field of interest; e.g. observed cases of truancy among
learners are on the rise.
 It should be of great interest to you: you will have to spend
many months investigating the problem.
 The problem should be significant: It is not worth time and
effort investigating a trivial problem or repeating work
which has already been done elsewhere.
 It should be delineated: Consider the time you have to
complete the work, and the depth to which the problem will
be addressed.
 Examples of research problems

Broad area – STEM education

Problem – low female uptake at A – Level
Topic – strategies to increase female participation in
STEM at A – level

Broad area – ICT in education

Problem – limited application of e – learning in
secondary schools
Topic – challenges in the adoption and use of ICT in
sec schools.
 Sources of research problems

Research problems originate from many sources

1. Experience
 Your experiences in teaching and learning can help point at
problematic areas
2. Literature review
 A review of literature in your area of interest may help find a study
that needs to be replicated (but with some variations)
3. Past research
 Most research has been conducted but may still fall short or be limited
in scope
4. Theory
 Theories are generated based on specific conditions. A careful study of
a theory can open up possible areas of research
 Criteria of a good research problem

Calmorin and Calmorin (2007)

 Interesting
 Innovative/ modern
 Cost-effective
 Relevant to the needs of society
 Measurable and time-bound
 Evaluating a research problem

 1. The problem should have significance

 Its solution to contribute to theory and practice
 Would the solution make any difference to educational practice
 2. The problem should lead to new problems or cause further
research
 3. The problem must be researchable
 4. The problem should be suitable and of interest to the
researcher
 The problem should be feasible
 Does the researcher have capacity to carry out research of the magnitude?
 Select problem that can be investigated in the allotted time
 6. The problem should be ethically approved
 No violation of ethical principles
 Background or Motivation for the Study

Provides details of what motivated you to carry out

the research
It specifies the context/background of the research
problem
It indicates the magnitude and significance of the
problem
Based on what is factually known about the problem
It indicates generally what you want to do about the
problem through your research
Formulating and stating a research problem

Results in – A statement of the problem

This statement should be at least a paragraph that
includes the following aspects:
 1. the topic
 2. the research problem
 3. justification of the research
 4. The deficiencies in existing literature about the problem
 5. the audiences that will benefit from the study
 Example: Statement of problem

The focus of this research is to investigate the levels

of poverty among communities in Lupane District,
and how poverty affects learners at secondary school
level. The researcher has been made privy of the fact
that there is rampant poverty in rural communities in
Lupane District which is affecting secondary schools
learners’ learning and performance in one way or the
other. Knowledge from the research should inform
intervention measures that can alleviate challenges
faced by secondary school learners due to the poverty
levels in their communities
 Research paradigms

 There are 3 major research paradigms in education:

 1. Quantitative research - research that relies primarily on the
collection and analysis of quantitative data to identify statistical relations
of variables
 Reality is knowable in different representations
 Knowledge is objective
 2. Qualitative research - research that relies primarily on the
collection and analysis of qualitative data to search for patterns or
themes.
 Knowledge is subjective and no group values are wrong.
 Values/principles are an integral part of social life

3. Mixed research

 Combines or mixes quantitative and qualitative research
techniques in a single study
 Research Designs
Research design essentially refers to the framework
for the collection and analysis of data thus overally
answering the research question or testing the research
hypothesis
It is the overall strategy that you choose to integrate
the different components of the study in a coherent
and logical way,
It constitutes the blueprint for the collection,
measurement, and analysis of data.
Note that your research problem determines the type
of design you should use, not the other way around!
 RESEARCH DESIGNS
RESEARCH RESEARCH DESIGN
PARADIGM
Quantitative Descriptive survey
Experimental research

Qualitative Case study

Ethnographic study
Mixed methods Sequential explanatory
Sequential exploratory
 The Descriptive Survey
Concerns itself with the present phenomena in terms of
conditions, practices beliefs, processes, relationships or
trends invariably is termed as “descriptive survey study”.
Aggarwal (2008) descriptive research is devoted to the
gathering of information about prevailing conditions or
situations for the purpose of description and
interpretation.
Is primarily concerned with describing the nature or
conditions and degree in detail of the present situation
(Landman, 1988).
It is concerned with the conditions or relationships that
exist, opinions that are held , processes that are going on,
effects that are evident, or trends that are developing (Best
and Khan,2000).
 Descriptive Survey (contd.)
It entails studying a limited number of cases and
drawing conclusions that cover the generality of
whole group under study (Chiromo,2009).
Conclusion are drawn about a population based on
a sample.
Random sampling is necessary for validity of
information that represents the population under
study.
Methods of data collection include questionnaires,
observations, interviews and tests.
 Experimental Research Design
 Experimental research designs examine the effect of independent
variable on the dependent variable.
 The independent variable is manipulated through treatment and the
effect is observed on the dependent variable.
 Essential characteristics: Manipulation, Control and
Randomization.
 Manipulation: the conscious control of the independent variable
by the researcher through treatment
 For example, a researcher is conducting a study on the effect of a
teaching method on the achievement of O level students in
mathematics.
 Experiments (contd.)

 Control: refers to use of a control group and controlling the effects

of extraneous variables on the dependent variable in which
researcher is interested.
 The subjects in the control and experimental groups are similar in
number and characteristics.
 The experimental group receives the planned treatment or
intervention, while the control group does not receive the same
treatment
 Randomization: means that every subject has an equal chance of
being assigned to experimental or to the control group
 Randomization minimizes the threat of internal validity of the
study
 Experiment and quasi-experiments

True experiments have:

 An experimental and a control group
 There is random assignment to either group
 There is controlling of extraneous variables
 Involve pre- and post testing
Quasi-experiments:
 Can have only one experimental group, and no control group
 No random assignment
 Little control of extraneous variable
 May not involve pre-testing.
 The Case Study Design
 Is an approach to research that focuses on gaining an in-depth
understanding of a particular entity or event at a specific time.
 Bromley (1990), says it is a “systematic inquiry into an event or a
set of related events which aims to describe and explain the
phenomenon of interest” (p. 302).
 The unit of analysis can vary from an individual to a corporation.
 The case study is useful to employ when there is a need to obtain an
in-depth appreciation of an issue, event or phenomenon of interest,
in its natural, real-life context.
 A case study is an examination of a specific phenomenon such as a
programme, an event, a person, a process, an institution, or a social
group (Merriam, 1988).
 Ethnographic study

An ethnographic research is a qualitative method where

researchers completely immerse themselves in the lives,
culture, or situation they are studying.
They are often longitudinal and lengthy studies.
The focus may include intensive language and culture
learning,
It is an intensive study of a single field or domain, and a
blend of historical, observational, and interview methods.
Ethnographic research employs three kinds of data
collection: interviews, observation, and documents.
The purpose is to understand what is happening naturally in
the setting
Action Research
 Action research can be described as: any research into
practice undertaken by those involved in that practice,
with an aim to change people’s practices, their
understandings of their practices, and the conditions
under which they practice (Kemmis, 2009; Carr and
Kemmis, 1986).
 It is a localized research that aims at resolving observed
problems of practice
 It leads to change and the improvement of practice not
just knowledge in itself; and
 It is context-specific (situational)
 Action Research Cycle

The action research cycle consists of four steps – those of

planning, acting, observing and reflecting. Usually
represented (and just as badly drawn) in a cycle, thus:
Steps in Conducting Action Research
Step 1 - Problem Identification:
Step2 –Develop research question(s)
step -3 Conducting a brief literature search
Step 4 - Plan of Action/ research strategy/data
collection strategies
Step 5 - Data Collection
Step 6 - Analysis and interpretation of Data
Step 7 - Plan for Future Action
 Mixed Methods Research
What is it?
Mixed methods research is a methodology for
conducting research that involves integrating
quantitative (e.g., experiments, surveys) and qualitative
(e.g., focus groups, interviews) research methods.
This approach is used when this integration provides a
better understanding of the research problem than
either of each alone.
By mixing both quantitative and qualitative research
and data, the researcher gains in breadth and depth of
understanding and corroboration, while offsetting the
weaknesses inherent to using each approach by itself.
 Triangulation

Triangulation is the use of several means

(methods, data sources and researchers) to
examine the same phenomenon.
It allows one to identify aspects of a phenomenon
more accurately by approaching it from different
vantage points using different methods and
techniques.
Successful triangulation requires careful analysis of
the type of information provided by each method,
including its strengths and weaknesses.
 When to use mixed methods

 When one wants to validate or corroborate the results

obtained from other methods.
 When one needs to use one method to inform another
method.
 When one wants to continuously look at a research question
from different angles, and clarify unexpected findings and/or
potential contradictions.
 When one wants to elaborate, clarify, or build on findings
from other methods.
 When one wants to develop a theory about a phenomenon of
interest and then test it.
 When one wants to generalize findings from qualitative
research.
 Research Ethics

Marshall (1998) – the application of moral rules and

professional codes of conduct to the collection,
analysis, reporting and publication of research
subjects
Refers to the correct rules of conduct necessary when
carrying out research
Provides guidelines for the responsible conduct of
educational research
 Ethical Principles

Ethics are the norms or standards for the conduct of

research which help determine the difference between
acceptable and unacceptable behaviour
Most institutions developed an Institutional Review
Board (IRB) to help ensure the safety of living subjects
The codes address issues such as honesty, objectivity,
respect for intellectual property.
1. voluntary participation
Guarantees that all human subjects are choosing out of
their free will
 Ethical principles (contd)
 2. Informed consent
 Participants must be fully informed about the procedures and
risks involved in research
 Participants to give their consent to participate
3. Protection from harm
 Both physical and psychological
4. Respect for anonymity and confidentiality
 Confidentiality – no information will be available to anyone.
 Anonymity – any participant should remain anonymous
throughout the study.
 Ethical principles (contd)

5. Freedom to withdraw

 Participants can withdraw from the study if they feel they no
longer want to continue
6. Deception
 Providing misleading information or when researcher
withholds info from participants about the study
 If deception is used debriefing should follow with two aims:
 Dehoaxing: telling research participants of any deception or ruses used
in a study
 Desensitising: eliminating any negative aftereffects that a participant
might experience after taking part in a project
 Why are Ethical considerations important ?

1. To prevent against fabrication or falsifying of data

2. To encourage an environment of trust and mutual
respect among researchers
3. To enhance the external validity or acceptability of
findings
4. To minimise exposure, demeaning or humiliation of
participants
5. To safeguard yourself as a researcher against future
criticism.
 Research questions and Hypotheses

1. Research questions

 Specifying the research question is the point of departure of
scholarly research
 The research will be geared to answer the research questions
 Are derived from the statement of the problem.
 The research question should be a clear, focused question
that summarizes the issue that the researcher will
investigate.
 Characteristics: the question must be – feasible, clear,
significant, ethical, answerable (no simple YES – NO ans.)
 Writing a research question

Specify your specific concern or issue

Decide what you want to know about the specific
concern or issue
Turn what you want to know and the specific concern
into a question
Ensure that the question is answerable
Check to make sure the question is not too broad or too
narrow
This is the basic process in writing a research question.
Writing a good question will result in a better research
project.
 Research questions (contd)

E.g.
The main Research question
 What are the levels of poverty that influence learners’ learning
and performance in Lupane District secondary schools ?
Sub – research questions
 1. What are the levels of poverty in Lupane rural communities?
 2. How does poverty influence learners’ learning and
performance in Lupane secondary schools?
 3. What strategies can be put in place to minimize the negative
effects of poverty on learners’ learning and performance?
 Research questions (contd)

Higher level questions 1. How... 2. Why do... 3. What...

Lower level questions 1. Do….. 2. Is there…..
Task - The purpose of my study is to determine the
attitudes of high school science teachers in Zimbabwe
towards the teaching of evolution in biology
Re-state the following research problem in the form of
a main research question together with 3 sub-
questions
Main Question - What are the attitudes of high school
science teachers in Zimbabwe towards the teaching of
evolution in the biology curriculum
 Hypotheses

Creswell (2012) – a formal statement that presents

the expected relationship between an independent
and a dependent variable.
A hypothesis is a tentative explanation that
accounts for a set of facts and can be tested.
Formulating hypotheses
 1. Hypothesis states the expected relationship between
variables E.g. There is a positive relationship between
achievement in math and science
 Hypotheses must be testable
 Hypotheses should be consistent with existing knowledge
 Types of hypotheses

1. Null hypothesis (Ho)

Default position that there is no relationship
between two measured phenomena or variables
 E.g. There is no difference between students’ performance in
maths and science
2. Alternate hypothesis (H1)
Directional and non-directional
 A directional hypothesis – predicts the direction of a change,
or difference e.g. There is a positive relationship between
student achievement in math and science.
 Alternate hypothesis (contd)

A non-directional hypothesis – predicts a change or

difference between variables but does not indicate
whether the direction will be positive or negative, or
greater or less
 E.g. There is a relationship between student achievement in
maths and science
 SAMPLING TECHNIQUES
 Sampling refers to drawing a sample (a subset) from a
population (the full set).
 The goal in sampling is to produce a representative sample (i.e.,
a sample that is similar to the population on all characteristics,
except that it includes fewer people because it is a sample rather
than the complete population).
 Metaphorically, a perfect representative sample would be a
"mirror image" of the population from which it was selected
(again, except that it would include fewer people).
 A population is defined as all members of any well-defined
class of people, events, or objects.
 TYPES OF SAMPLING

 Two major types of sampling procedures are available to

researchers: probability and nonprobability sampling.
 Probability sampling involves sample selection in which the
elements are drawn by chance procedures. The main
characteristic of probability sampling is that every member or
element of the population has a known probability of being
chosen in the sample.
 Nonprobability sampling includes methods of selection in
which elements are not chosen by chance procedures. Its success
depends on the knowledge, expertise, and judgment of the
researcher.
 PROBABILITY SAMPLING

Probability sampling is defined as the kind of sampling in

which every element in the population has an equal chance of
being selected. The possible inclusion of each population
element in this kind of sampling takes place by chance and is
attained through random selection.
The four types of probability sampling most frequently used
in educational research are simple random sampling,
stratified sampling, cluster sampling, and systematic
sampling.
 NON PROBABILITY SAMPLING

In nonprobability sampling, there is no assurance

that every element in the population has a chance of
being included.
Its main advantages are convenience and economy.
The major forms of nonprobability sampling are
convenience sampling, purposive sampling, snow
ball and quota sampling.
 RANDOM SAMPLING
 Selecting subjects so that all members of a population have an
equal and independent chance of being selected
Advantages
1. Easy to conduct
2. High probability of achieving a representative sample
3. Meets assumptions of many statistical procedures
Disadvantages
1. Identification of all members of the population can be difficult
2. Contacting all members of the sample can be difficult
 STRATIFIED RANDOM SAMPLING
 The population is divided into two or more groups called
strata, according to some criterion, such as geographic
location, grade level, age, or income, and subsamples are
randomly selected from each strata.
Advantages
More accurate sample
Can be used for both proportional and non-
proportional samples.
Representation of subgroups in the sample ◦
Disadvantages
Identification of all members of the population can be
difficult Identifying members of all subgroups can be difficult
 CLUSTER SAMPLING
 The process of randomly selecting intact groups, not
individuals, within the defined population sharing similar
characteristics.
 Clusters are locations within which an intact group of members
of the population can be found. Examples Neighbourhoods,
School districts, Schools, Classrooms
Advantages
Very useful when populations are large and spread
over a large geographic region.
Convenient and expedient.
Do not need the names of everyone in the population.
Disadvantages
Representation is likely to become an issue
 SYSTEMATIC SAMPLING

Selecting every nth subject from a list of the

members of the population ◦
Advantage
Very easily done ◦
Disadvantages
Subgroups, some members of the population don’t
have an equal chance of being included
 CONVENIENCE SAMPLING

A type of nonprobability sampling which involves

the sample being drawn from that part of the
population which is close to hand. That is, readily
available and convenient.
The researcher using such a sample cannot
scientifically make generalizations about the total
population from this sample because it would not
be representative enough.
Subjects are chosen simply because they are easy to
recruit. This technique is considered easiest,
cheapest and least time consuming.
 SNOWBALL SAMPLING

Snowball sampling is particularly appropriate when

the population you are interested in is hidden
and /or hard-to-reach. These include populations
such as drug addicts, homeless people, individuals
with AIDS/HIV, prostitutes, and so forth.
In snowball sampling, you begin by identifying
someone who meets the criteria for inclusion in
your study. You then ask them to recommend others
who they may know who also meet the criteria.
The downside of using a snowball sample is that it is
hardly representative of the population.
 PURPOSIVE SAMPLING

The researcher chooses the sample based on who

they think would be appropriate for the study. This is
used primarily when there is a limited number of
people that have expertise in the area being
researched
In purposive sampling, we sample with a purpose in
mind. We usually would have one or more specific
predefined groups we are seeking
 QUOTA SAMPLING
With proportional quota sampling, the aim is to end
up with a sample where the strata (groups) being
studied (e.g., males vs. females students)
are proportional to the population being studied.
In quota sampling, you select people nonrandomly
according to some fixed quota.
In proportional quota sampling you want to
represent the major characteristics of the population
by sampling a proportional amount of each. For
instance, if you know the population has 40% women
and 60% men, and that you want a total sample size
of 100, you will continue sampling until you get those
percentages and then you will stop.
 Data Collection Instruments
Data Collection
 is an important step of any type of research study.
 accurate data collection leads to valid results.

A researcher must design data gathering instruments that

get the kind of information from which valid conclusions
can be drawn.
The research instruments must enable collection of data
that is used to answer the research questions.
Research conclusions are dependent on the quality of the
data that is collected.
The famous saying about computers “garbage in garbage
out’’ is also applicable for data collection.
All data collection instruments need to be pilot tested
 The questionnaire
A questionnaire consists of a set of written coherent
questions presented to a respondents for answers.
Respondents answer by writing what they think is the
most relevant response to the question
Used mainly when respondents are many or are
scattered over a large area.
To ensure maximum return rate, it is advisable to self-
distribute and self-collect questionnaires
Posted questionnaires are prone to a low return rate
Main weakness is that respondents can interpret
questions differently from researcher expectations
There are three basic types of questionnaire:
 Structured questionnaires

Consist of closed or prompted questions with

predefined answers; e.g ‘Yes’ or ‘No’
The researcher has to anticipate all possible answers
with pre-coded responses.
Closed ended questions include all possible
answers/prewritten response categories, and
respondents are asked to choose among them e.g.
multiple choice questions, rating scales, etc.
Data collected is quantifiable and can be analysed
statistically.
 Unstructured questionnaire

 Are made up of questions that elicit free responses.

 Allow respondents to answer in their own words
 Writing spaces are provided after each question for the
respondents to write in an answer
 Can be used to collect data about people’s opinions, attitudes,
perceptions, thoughts, etc.
 There are no standard or fixed answers to these questions
 Data collected is mainly qualitative and may be difficult to
quantify
 Questions need to be well-structured and need not be too many.
 Avoid asking about sensitive issues; otherwise respondents will
not answer
 Semi-structured questionnaires

comprise a mixture of closed and open questions.

Usually structured into sections
One section has closed questions that elicit
quantifiable data
Another section has open ended questions that
enable free responses in written form
The use of semi-structured questionnaires enables a
mix of qualitative and quantitative information to be
gathered
 Interview
 Is a one-on-one directed conversation with an individual using a
series of questions designed to elicit extended responses.
 It is a conversation in which one person (the interviewer) elicits
information from another person (the subject or interviewee).
 Interviewer records the respondent’s oral responses as the
interview progresses
 It allows you to probe for greater depth or explanation
 Interviews allow participants to express their thoughts using their
own words
 Researcher can also capture gestures of frowns as expressed
attitudes or opinions
 Data collected needs to be transcribed for analysis
 Data is mainly qualitative in nature
 There are three fundamental types of research interviews:
structured, semi-structured and unstructured.
 Types of Interviews

Structured interviews:
 are, essentially, verbally administered questionnaires
 a list of predetermined questions are asked, with little or no
variation and with no scope for follow-up questions to
responses that warrant further elaboration.
 They are relatively quick and easy to administer
 Data collected can be quantified for further analysis
 Types of Interviews (contd.)

Unstructured interviews:
 Are conducted with very few or no pre-set questions
 Are conducted in a conversational manner
 Questions asked are open-ended and have follow-up questions
 Interviewee does most of the talking while interviewer listens
without judging the responses
 Types of Interviews (contd.)

 Semi-structured interviews:
 Consist of several key questions that help to define the areas to
be explored
 Have some pre-set and logically organized questions
 Allow the interviewer or interviewee to diverge in order to
pursue an idea or response in more detail
 Can include some closed questions
 Data collected is qualitative and may be difficult to quantify
 Observations

 Are a way of gathering data by watching behaviour, events,

or noting physical characteristics in their natural setting.
 Can be overt (everyone knows they are being observed) or
covert (no one knows they are being observed and the
observer is concealed).
 In covert observation people are more likely to behave
naturally because they do not know they are being
observed.
 Covert observation is unethical
 However, you will typically need to conduct overt
observations because of ethical problems related to
concealing your observation.
 There are two important forms of observation: quantitative
observation and qualitative observation.
 Observation (contd.)

Quantitative observations:
 are more structured,
 standardized,

 Use rating scales, checklists, or scoring systems

 Categorical data is collected

 Data is easily quantifiable for further analysis

Qualitative observations are more open-ended and based on

the inductive approaches to data collection
 Can use devices such as video cameras
 Researcher Roles in Observation

 Complete participant:
 the researcher becomes a member of the group being studied and
does not tell the members that they are being studied
 Participant-as-observer:
 the researcher spends extended time with the group as an insider
and tells the members they are being studied
 Observer-as-participant:
 the researcher spends a limited amount of time observing group
members and tells members that they are being studied
 Complete observer:
 the researcher observes as an outsider and does not tell the people they are
being observed
 Tests
Used in research to measure personality, aptitude,
achievement, and performance.
A test must measure what it is supposed to measure
Specific knowledge, skills, behavior, or cognitive
activity can be measured using tests
QUALITIES OF A GOOD TEST
 Validity: in general a test possesses validity to the extent that it
measures what it claims to measure.
 Reliability: a test is reliable to the extent that it measures

accurately and consistently, from one time to another

 Objectivity: A test should yield a clear score value for each

performance the score being independent of the personal

judgment of the scorer.
 Data collection

The process of going into the field to collect data

It is the administration of data collection
instruments when collecting data
It involves negotiating acceptance and entry
It is how questionnaires are distributed and collected
It is also how interviews are conducted, or how tests
are administered
In observation, it is how the observations are done.
Researcher makes decisions on how to collect data.
 Literature review

Def – a written summary of journal articles, books,

etc that describes the past and current state of info
on topic of study
Role of literature review
1. To document how your study adds to the existing
literature. To avoid duplicating literature already
available
2. To gather information about subject/topic from
many sources
 Role of literature review (contd)

3. To bring the reader up to date with current

literature on a topic
4. To situate the existing literature in a broader
scholarly and historical context
5. To show command of the subject area and
understanding of the problem
6. To identify gaps in research & justify the need for
(future) research in an area
7. To provide a rationale/motivation for own study
(main subject, theme/topic, questions, objectives, etc.)
 Steps in Literature review

Identify relevant literary sources linked to your topic

Identify key terms to use in search of literature
Consult several materials and databases – read
widely
Critically evaluate and select relevant literature for
your review
Write a review that reports summaries of the
literature
 Organising literature

Organise literature in the order of the research

questions:
Sources of Literature
Primary sources - direct original reports/accounts,
e.g. journal articles or theses/dissertation
Secondary sources - indirect opinions that draw
from/refer to primary sources, e.g. ‘so and so’ in ‘so
and so’ – research summaries reported in textbooks,
magazines etc
If you tell someone else what i told you you are a
secondary source
 External and Internal Validity in Research
External validity has to do with the degree to which the
results of a study can be generalized to and across
populations of persons, settings, times, outcomes, and
treatment variations.
2 types of external validity:(i) population validity
(ii) ecological validity
•population validity: ability to generalize the study results
to the population of ultimate interest. The issues are how
well you can generalize your sample results to a population.
•Ecological validity: the degree to which research findings
can be generalized across different environmental contexts
of interest eg across geographical areas.
Internal validity gives the researchers
confidence to conclude that what they did in a
research study caused what they observed to
happen
It is the approximate truth about inferences
regarding cause-effect or causal relationships.
In experiments it is the extent to which you are
able to say that no other variables except the one
you're studying caused the result.
In surveys, internal validity relates to the
authenticity of truthfulness of your findings
 Threats to internal Validity
 Differential attrition: loss of subjects from one or more
groups in a study.
 Diffusion: spread of treatment from the treated group to the
untreated.
 Compensatory equalization: untreated group learn of the
treatment given to others and demand same treatment or
something better.
 Compensatory rivarly/John Henry effect: control group
performs beyond expectations because they perceive they are in
competition with experimental group.
 Resentful demoralisation: Control group becomes
discouraged because they perceive experimental group is
receiving a desirable treatment that is being withheld from them.
The Hawthorne Effect: increase or change in
performance by subjects due to the fact that they are
being observed.
Maturation: Subjects change during the course of the
experiment or even between measurements. For
example, young children might mature and their ability
to concentrate may change as they grow up.
Instrumentation: the changes in the instrument,
observers, or scorers which may produce changes in
outcomes.
Experimenter bias: occurs when the individuals
who are conducting an experiment inadvertently affect
the outcome by non-consciously behaving in different
ways to members of control and experimental groups
 BED101: STATISTICS SECTION
Branches of statistics: DESCRIPTIVE AND
INFERENTIAL STATISTICS

The appropriate methods of data analysis are

dependent on data type (nominal, ordinal, interval or
ratio) and variables of interest
Task 1: (a) Research data is collected using any 4 of
the scales of measurement: nominal, ordinal, interval
or ratio. Describe each of the 4 measurement scales
(b) By identifying a researchable topic give examples
of data collected which are nominal, ordinal, interval
and ratio.
 Measurement scales

1. Nominal= categorical

• E.g. gender, religion, ethnicity.
• Data that is classified into categories and cannot be
arranged in any particular order. E.g. (0) Male – (1)
Female.
Nominal=Categorical=Dichotomous
2. Ordinal= data ordered, but distance between
intervals not always equal. E.g. Low (1), middle (2)
and high (3) income, or rating the difficulty of a
subject on a scale of 1,2,3,4.
 Measurement scales -cont

3. Interval= equal distance between each interval.

E.g. 1,2,3. Arbitrary zero point (e.g. Fahrenheit scale
for temperature - temperature does not cease to exist
at zer0 degrees)

4. Ratio= similar to interval scale, but has true zero

point E.g. Weight, salary ($0= no money).
What type of research data is collected by each
scale??
 Descriptive statistics:

The most common type of data analysis

Summarizes your research findings
Involves - organizing, summarizing and presenting
the immediate data (i.e. sample data ) in a
convenient way.
Tells you how your data looks like, and what the
relationships are between the different variables in
your data set.
 Descriptive stats (contd)

Stats that enhance the description of a set of data.

For example, we may describe the performance of
students of a class in terms of their average
performance.
 Inferential stats

 It deals with the use of sample data to draw

conclusions/ infer population data.
 powerful techniques that may demonstrate if a
change in learner performance has occurred as a
result of an intervention e.g. new teaching approach.
 Some Key terms

a. Variable
- characteristic of data that can take on different
values e.g. age, teacher qualification, test score
b. Parameter
- a numerical measure to describe the characteristics
of a population e.g. popn standard dev (σ) popn mean (
µ)
 c. Statistic
 - a numerical measure to describe the characteristics
of a sample. e.g. sample standard dev (s)
 Key terms - contd

d. Data
raw materials of research.
can be quantitative or qualitative
suppose you are measure height in research (H)
H  1.4 m (i.e. quantitative – thus objective)
or
  Very short (i.e. qualitative – thus subjective)
 A. Descriptive statistics

NB: knowing the type of data helps you select

appropriate statistical techniques for data analysis.
 1. Univariate data Analysis.

 involves the examination of one variable at a time.

 Three major characteristics of a single variable:
 • the distribution of data

 • the measures of central tendency

 • the measures of dispersion



 1.1 The distribution of data

includes frequency distributions (using %), bar

charts, histogram, line graph, frequency Polygon
FREQUENCY TABLE
E.g. the following represents teaching experience
(years) for 20 Eng teachers: 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 11 12
13 14 16 21 22 24 28 32 34 47 48. Draw a
frequency table using class intervals 0-9, 10-19 etc
to summarise the data
Teaching 0-9 10-19 20- 30-39 40-49
exp. (yrs) 29
f 7 5 4 2 2
Histogram
Bar GRAPH
Pie chart
 1.2. Measure of central tendency (the 3 m’s)

typical measure of a distribution of scores

enables us to summarise with a single number
a. Mean
Arithmetic average (most frequently used average)
Mean for ungrouped scores
 = ∑ x / n, where n is total no. of scores & ∑ x is
sum of scores in a distribution.
e.g. find mean 1, 2,3, 54
Mean = 60/4 = 15
 Mean (contd)

Mean for grouped data

Mean = ∑fx / ∑f where x is the midpoint of class and
f is the class frequency
Task :
By grouping the scores in the following classes 0-9,
10-19, 20-29, 30-39 calculate the mean of the
scores.
3 4 5 6 7 8 9 11 12 13 14 16 21 22 24 28 32
34 47 48

 b. Median

middle number of an ordered set of scores

it is more of a measure of position than of
magnitude
e.g. find the median in i) 0, 1, 2, 3, 54
 …. Median = 2
 ii) 1, 2, 3, 54
 …. Median = 2.5
 c. Mode

is the most frequent score in a set of scores.

E.g find the mode: 2,3,3,3,5,5,5,5,6
in data analysis it is used to indicate the most
common response in an item.
Task
Find the mode
i) 2, 3, 4, 5, 5, 6 ii) 2, 2, 2, 3, 4, 5, 5, 5, 6,
 Mode (contd)

An Example: e.g. in a questionnaire, item 8 reads:

8. A positive school climate increases teacher performance.
Agree - 41 (82%) Undecided – 3(6%) Disagree -6(12%)
Analysis using percentages (%) :
 the majority (41) 82% of the respondents do agree that a
positive school climate contributes to increased teacher
performance.
Analysis using mode :
the modal value is agree i.e. on average respondents agree
that a positive school climate contributes to increased
teacher performance
 Using a ‘SHARP’ Calculator

How to use a calculator to compute mean (Sharp)

Steps in recording univariate data into a calculator using
the statistical mode
 Switch on calculator
 Press ‘Mode’
 Select ‘1’ for Statistics mode
 Select ‘0’ for One Variable Statistics
 Then start entering your data, one by one, pressing ‘M+’ after each
entry
 To retrieve your summary statistics:
 Either press ‘ALPHA’, then the symbol for the statistic that you want,
then press ‘=‘
 Or press ‘RCL’ then the statistic that you want
 Using a ‘SHARP’ Calculator 2

Bivariate Data:
 Switch on calculator
 Press ‘Mode’
 Select ‘1’ for Statistics mode
 Select ‘1’ for Two Variable Statistics
 Then start entering your data, in pairs
 Enter first number, press ‘STO’, enter second number, press
‘M+’
 Repeat for all the pairs until the last pair
 To retrieve your summary statistics:
 Press ‘RCL’ then the statistic that you want, e.g. ‘r’ for
correlation coefficient (on division sign)
 Example

Using a calculator find the mean and standard

deviation for the following data set:
32 32 33 33 33 34 34 34 34 34
22 24 26 27 28 28 29 31 33 39
 1.3 Measure of dispersion

Measures the spread of scores in a set i.e. how far the

scores are scattered about middle of the distribution
1. Range ® R = max – min
e.g. find range given
i) 32 32 33 33 33 34 34 34 34 34
 R = 34-32 = 2
ii) 22 24 26 27 28 28 29 31 33 39
 R = 39-22 = 17
 thus data in (i) above is more compressed than in
(ii).
 Measure of dispersion - contd

2. Standard deviation (SD)

Is the overall spread of data about the mean score.
Is a measure of the spread or dispersion of a set of
data given in the same units as the indicator.
the higher the standard deviation, the greater the
spread of data.
If standard dev. value is small then scores tend to
cluster closely around the mean
It is more stable than range
 Sample standard deviation, s

Σ = sum of
M = mean of all scores
n = sample size (number of scores)
 Types of distributions

Positive skew
Negative skew
Normal /symmetrical distribution
Skewness is the pattern of the distribution of
scores
It shows whether the majority of scores are high or
low or whether half of the scores appear below or
above the average
Positive skew
 Positively skewed distribution

The distribution has a long tail in the positive

direction, or to the right.
Mode < median < mean
E.g. temperature recorded in winter
 Negative skew

E.g
 Negatively skewed distribution

The distribution has a long tail in the negative

direction, or to the left.
Mean < median < mode
E.g. temperature recorded in summer
 Normal distribution

E.g.
 Normal distribution

 Mean = median = mode

e.g. human characteristics obey this distribution like
height, weight, shoe size
 Practice Exercise

A researcher wanted to analyse the ages of people in a typical village in rural

Zimbabwe. She selected a random sample of people in two rural villages and
collected the following data about their ages in years:
23 44 78 79 56 66 52 71 59
18 69 14 72 35 31 67 51 39
57 18 73 82 19 69 77 83 58
82 71 64 60 33 55 64 59 42
66 70 49 45 52 43 35 36 79
69 17 75 14 72 67 65 35 60
16 61 55 56 59 42 48 74 76
78 88 58 60 68 17 64 35 62
8 11 26 79 66 64 65 51 39
24 65 34 81 47 37 99 4 72
1 63 67 76 29 79 45 36 83
18
 Answer the following questions

How many people were in the sample?

Using your calculator:
 Calculate the mean age of the people
 Calculate the standard deviation of the ages
 Find the range of the ages
 Find the mode and median
Present the data in a grouped frequency table
Draw a histogram of the ages
Comment on the skewness of the ages, and suggest a
possible explanation for the skewness
 2.Bivariate data analysis

So far we have been confined to data involving only one

variable or one set of scores.
Def - involves the examination of two variables
simultaneously
Association between variables
Def - the relationship or ‘going togetherness” between
variables.
e.g. comparing pupils’ entry test performance at G7
and their later performance at O– level,
comparing pupils’ performance in Eng (1) and Eng (2).
 Bivariate data analysis- contd

Measure of association
Degree/strength of the linear relationship between
variables
1. Scatter graph
simplest way of representing bivariate data
it has two axes: x –axis showing the independent
variable and the y-axis showing the dependent
variable.
 Measure of association-contd

Student A B C D E F G H

RES 16 18 13 26 21 15 35 28
METH

STATS 18 15 15 14 16 19 10 13
 Scatter graph

20

18

16

14

12

10
10 15 20 25 30 35 40
 Graphical Analysis of Associations

1. perfect positive/negative,

 2. strong positive/negative,
3. moderate positive/negative
4. weak positive/negative
5. no correlation
 Measure of association

2. Correlation coefficient

It’s a value between -1 and +1
The closer the value to 1 or –1 the stronger the r/ship
between the variables, and the closer to zero the
weaker the r/ship.
Positive correlation  means high/low scores on one
variable tend to go with high/low scores on the other
variable
Negative correlation  means high scores on one
variable tend to go with low scores on the other
variable
 Types of correlation coefficients

 i. Spearman – brown rank order correlation

used to determine the degree of r/ship for ranked
data
rs = 1 - 6∑d2 / n(n2 - 1) where n is the no. of pairs in
scores, d = rank x – rank y
for shared ranks or tie use average rank order.
 Spearman rank correlation

Calculate Spearman rank order correlation and

comment

Student A B C D E F G H

RES. 16 18 13 26 21 15 35 28
MET

STATS 18 15 15 14 16 19 10 13
 Solution

Rank x Rank y d d2
6 2 4 16
5 4.5 0.5 0.25
8 4.5 3.5 12.25
3 6 -3 9
4 3 1 1
7 1 6 36
1 8 -7 49
2 7 -5 25
148.5
 Cont...

r= 1 – 6X148.5 / 8(64-1)

 = 1 – 891/ 504
 = - 0.77
This shows a strong negative correlation between
research methods and statistics scores. In other
words students perform inversely in the two areas.
e.g. One may be good in one area and be weak in
the other.
 In-class task 2

1. The following table shows results obtained by 10

Bachelor of Education students in the statistics test
and BED 101 end of semester examination. The
results of the final semester were graded using
symbols 1, 2.1, 2.2, 3 and F. the statistics test results
were captured as raw marks.

Using the Spearman-brown rank order correlation,

calculate the coefficient of association.
[12]
 Inclass Task

Student A B C D E F G H I J

BED 3 1 2.2 2.1 F 2.2 2.2 2.1 F 1

101

Stats 57 77 64 62 45 66 58 60 40 80
Test
 Types of correlation coefficients (contd)

ii. Pearson product moment correlation

is a measure of the association between 2 variables if
data type is of the interval or ratio type
r = n∑xy - ∑x.∑y
 V[n∑x2 – (∑x)2][n∑y2 –(∑y)2]
Task: Use a calculator to compute Pearson
correlation measure and comment on the statistic.
 Pearson correlation

Cont-

Student A B C D E F G H

RES. 16 18 13 26 21 15 35 28
MET

STATS 18 15 15 14 16 19 10 13
 In-class task1

The following data shows the performance of 8

applicants in an entry test. A maths test was
administered to the same students two terms later.
 (a) Draw a scatter diagram showing clearly the two
axes.
(b) (i) Use calculator to compute mean for each of
the two sets.
 (ii)Use Pearson Product moment correlation to
comment the predictive power of the entry test.
 In-class task

Student 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8

Entry 90 48 51 60 41 63 55 81
test

Maths 22 6 21 13 14 22 9 33
score
Inferential statistics

Inferential statistics test

hypotheses about data and may
permit one to generalize beyond a
dataset.
Inferential statistics -cont

Key terms:
hypothesis: null & alternative,
types of errors,
level of significance,
degrees of freedom
Inferential Statistics -contd

Suppose
A certain man was arrested for stealing from the
bank and was to appear in court.
The judge has two options; either to convict or acquit
the man of the charges based on evidence provided
by the prosecutor.
1. Hypotheses
 Ho : The man is innocent
 HI : The man is guilty of the charges
Inferential Statistics -contd

2. Possible states of nature

The man stole from the bank
(Ho is false, HI is true)
The man is innocent
 (Ho is true, HI is false)

3. Possible judgement

The man is convicted (Reject H o in favour of HI )
i.e. there is sufficient evidence in support of conviction.
The man is acquitted (Fail to reject H o) i.e.
there is insufficient evidence in support of conviction.
Inferential Statistics -contd

4. Faulty judgement

the man is convicted when in fact he is innocent
(type 1 error).
Type 1 error – is when we reject a true Ho
the man is acquitted when guilty (type 11)
Type 11 error – is when we fail to reject a false Ho .
Inferential statistics - contd

Key concepts defined

1. Level of significance (α)
Is the criteria to determine when to reject or fail to
reject Ho
hard sciences use 0.01 and social sciences use 0.05
Key concepts - contd

2. Degrees of freedom (df)

is the index of random variability in a given situation
For one-sample test, df = n – 1 where n is sample
size and
for two-samples test, df = n1 + n2 – 2 where n1 and n2
are sample sizes for sample 1 and sample 2
3. Decision criteria
 Reject Ho when calc. value > crit. value and
 fail to reject Ho when calc value < crit. value
Key concepts - contd

3.a Critical value (e.g t-crit)

 boundary between critical region and the non –
critical region
the value is obtained from statistical tables. 3.b
Calculated value -Test statistic
Is calculated using sample data. e.g. for a t-test of
independent samples and for a X2 (chi– square) test
we use formulae:
 Formulae for t-calc and chi-square calc

 t=
Steps in hypothesis testing

1. State both hypotheses

2. Decide on the level of significance
3. Calculate the test statistic and compare it with the
critical value
4. Reject or fail to reject Ho
5. Interpret the findings on the basis of the original
problem
 Types of tests

Parametric test – e.g. t-test

Non-Parametric test – e.g. Chi-Square test

Parametric test

Tests population parameters using sample data

Most rigorous test which can be used when certain
assumptions are met e.g. it deals with random
samples
Parametric test - contd

Include: one sample t-test, independent samples t-

test
One sample t-test
Suppose that the teacher of a school claims that an
average student of his school studies for more than 8
hours per day during weekends and we desire to test
the truth of this claim.
 Cont...

In this case, the null hypothesis would be

Ho: μ = 8, which essentially states that mean hours
of study per day is no different from 8 hours.
Alternative hypothesis is, H1: μ > 8, which is the
teacher's claim.
Using fictitious data perform this test
 Cont...

Independent samples t-test

Is the test which determines if there is a significant
difference between two groups on the same
dependent variable. e.g. comparing between boys’
and girls’ performance in science
 Example 1
A researcher believes students who register for O-level mathematics, the calculator version perform
better than those who register for the non-calculator option. She selected random samples of students
from the two different backgrounds, and administered an identical instrument. The following
summary information was recorded on performance;

Sample for calculator-version sample for non-calculator version

, , n1 = 12 , , n2 = 10

Using a significance level of α= 0, 025 test the researcher’s claim.

t=
Solution – example 1

Let µ1 denote mean performance for calculator

version
and µ2 denote mean performance for non-calculator
version
Step 1
Ho : µ1 = µ2
H1 : µ1 > µ2
Solution - cont

Step 2
α = 0.025
Step 3
t-calc = 10.07 (2d.p)
t-crit = t(α;df) = t(0.025;n1+n2 -2)= t(0.025; 20)
t-crit = 2.09
So t-calc > t-crit
Solution - contd

Step 4
Since t-calc > t-crit we reject Ho in favour of H1.
Step 5
Therefore there is sufficient evidence that students
who sit for the calculator version perform better than
those who sit for the non-calculator version tested at
2.5% level of significance.
Non-parametric test

If at least one of the assumptions of the parametric

test is violated the class of statistics to use is known
as non-parametric.
Uses categorical data i.e. nominal / ordinal data that
can be converted to frequencies.
 e.g. Chi-square test
Chi–square test ( x2 test)

 Uses contingency tables

Contingency table – is a tabula classification of
study habits according to two categorical data sets.
e.g. team’s performance (win, draw, lose) Vs match
venue (home, away)

Chi-square test-contd

It makes use of Expected freq (E) and observed freq

(O)
E = (Row Total X Column Total )/ Grand Total
df=(c - 1)(r - 1) where c is no. of columns and r is no.
of rows
Example

The table below shows the numbers of pupils who passed and failed Mathematics mock
examination at Gray school. The school practices streaming, in which case Form 3A is the
best class and Form 3C is the weakest class.

Ability

Outcome Form 3A Form 3B Form 3C

Pass 23 13 7
Fail 11 15 17
Using a Chi-square test of 5% level of significance, determine if Ability and outcome are
independent.

[Formula: ]
Solution

Step 1
H0 : Ability and outcome of the mock test are
independent
H1 : Ability and outcome of the mock test are
dependent
Step 2
α = 0.05
Solution - contd

Step 3
Compute E = (R.T X C.T)/ G.T for each observed
freq. (O)

Form3A Form3B Form3C Row

total
Pass 23 (17) 13 (14) 7 (12) 43
Fail 11 (17) 15 (14) 17 (12) 43
Column 34 28 24 86
total
Solution - contd

Step 3 – contd

O E

23 17 36 2.1176
13 14 1 0.0714
7 12 25 2.0833
11 17 36 2.1176
15 14 1 0.0714
17 12 25 2.0833
8.5446
Solution - contd


Solution -contd

Step 5
Therefore ability and outcome of the mock test are
dependent tested at the 5% level of significance. That
is knowledge about one factor can help predict the
other factor.
 Example 1 for practice

 1. The following table shows the numbers of students who

obtained grades 3, 2.2, 2.1 and 1 in a module ENT205. The
selected sample was of university BED students from two
areas of specialization. A researcher’s interest is to establish
if grades obtained in the module depend on one’s area of
specialization.
Perform a chi-square test at 2.5% to verify the researcher
belief.
 Example for practice -contd

Exam grade

Area of 1 2.1 2.2 3

Specialization

Commercials 22 16 8 5

Arts 3 10 12 24
Example 2
1) A researcher wanted to establish if there is a significant difference in pass rate between mission
and government primary schools at Grade 7 level. she randomly selected samples of 12 schools
each and obtained the following summary statistics;

Sample of mission schools sample of government schools

= 87 % = 74 %

=5% =8%

Carryout a test at 5% level of significance to determine if mission schools perform better than
government schools at Grade 7 level. [30]

[t-cal = ]