Computer Memory

Memory: is used to store data and instructions.

Computer Memory : Computer Memory refers to any physical device capable of storing
data or information permanently or temporarily.
There are different types of computer memory.
1. Primary Memory or Internal Memory or Main Memory
2. Secondary Memory or Auxiliary Memory or Backing Storage Memory
Units of Memory Note:
1 Bit = Binary Digit 1 Nibble = 4 bits
8 Bits = 1 Byte WORD= 16 bits / 2 bytes
1024 Bytes = 1 KB (Kilo Byte) DWORD= 32 bits/ 4 bytes
QWORD=64 bits/ 8 bytes
1024 KB = 1 MB (Mega Byte)
-------------
1024 MB = 1 GB(Giga Byte)
Word is a fixed size
1024 GB = 1 TB(Terra Byte)
memory block or cell.
1024 TB = 1 PB(Peta Byte)
1024 PB = 1 EB(Exa Byte)
1024 EB = 1 ZB(Zetta Byte)
1024 ZB = 1 YB (Yotta Byte)
1024 YB = 1 (Bronto Byte)
1024 Brontobyte = 1 (Geop Byte)
Geop Byte is The Highest Memory Measurement Unit!!!
 CHIP MEMORY VS MAGNETIC MEMORY
AN OBJECT CAN BE MAGNETISED EITHER NORTH POLE OR SOUTH POLE
HOW CAN 1'S AND O'S CAN BE REPRESENTED MAGNETICALLY?
AN ELECTROMAGNETIC HEAD CAN BE USED TO MAGNATISED AN OBJECT
POLARITY EITHER NORTH OR SOUTH SIMPLY CHANGING THE DIRECTION OF
CURRENT IN A COIL=.
READ HEAD
IT SENSES THE DIRECTION OF THE MAGNETIC FIELD
 PRIMARY MEMORY
 Main Memory or Primary memory is the part of computer system that holds
data and instructions for processing.
 Main Memory is VOLATILE in nature i.e. it can hold data as long as your device
or machine is on, and once the power cuts off it will be erased. That’s why it is
sometimes also known as Temporary Memory.
 Some examples of volatile memory are RAM , Registers etc.
 Main Memory is classified into three categories or types:
1. RAM (RANDOM ACCESS MEMORY)
2. ROM (READ ONLY MEMORY )
3. INTERNAL PROCESSOR MEMORY
I. CACHE MEMORY
II. REGISTERS
 MAIN MEMORY ORGANIZATION
 A Main Memory of a computer system is made up of several small storage areas called
Locations or Cells.
 Each of these Locations can store a fixed number of bits called WORD LENGTH of the
memory.
0
1
2
.
. The words of memory
.

N-1
Bit 1 Bit 2 Each word contains the
same number of bits.

 Each Location or word has a built-in and unique number assigned to it, called the address of
the location. The first address normally starts from 0 and the highest address equals to the
number of words minus 1.
 RAM (RANDOM ACCESS MEMORY)
 RAM (Random Access Memory ) is also known as Read Write (R/W) Memory of
the computer i.e. the user can write the information to it and read the
information from it.
 RAM is volatile memory i.e. can hold data as long as power is on.
 RAM hold data and processing instructions temporarily until the CPU needs
them.
 RAM is installed on a motherboard slots or sockets known as Expansion Slots.
 There are following two types of RAM.
1. Static RAM (SRAM)
2. Dynamic RAM (DRAM)
1. Synchronous DRAM
2. DDR SDRAM
 DYNAMIC RAM
 DRAM is constructed using capacitors and few transistors.
 DRAM is a type of semiconductor memory where the word “Dynamic “ refers
that it needs to be periodically refreshed to retain its data.
 It stores each bit of data on separate capacitor within an Integrated Circuit, and
as we know that IC’s can contain millions of capacitors integrated on it.
Explanation:
 DRAM contains capacitors ( Capacitors are used to store the charge ).
 These capacitors are used to hold the bits of information or data, and these
capacitors are integrated on IC’s (Integrated Circuit).
 There are two states of capacitors i.e. Charged or Discharged , these two states
are taken to represent two values of bits , conventionally called as 0 & 1.
 Here bit value 1 specifies that capacitor is charged and a bit value 0 specifies
that capacitor is discharged. Note: Capacitors can’t hold charge for so long
which tends to leakage of charge.
 Now, due to this continuously leaking even the presence of continuous power ,
it consumes more power. So, to retain the data for a long time, it needs to be
repeatedly refreshed.
 TYPES OF DYNAMIC RAM (DRAM)
 There are two types of DRAM.
1. Synchronous Dynamic Random Access Memory (SDRAM )
2. Double Data Rate Synchronous Random Access Memory (DDR SDRAM)
Synchronous Dynamic Random Access Memory (SDRAM)
 SD-RAM is high speed semi conductor memory & an improve form
of DRAM.
 SD-RAM operates synchronously, which means it operates in synch
with system clock.
 SD-RAM is faster than DRAM because DRAM operates Asynch
with the system clock i.e. it runs slower than system clock.
 TYPES OF DYNAMIC RAM (DRAM)
DDR SDRAM(DOUBLE DATA RATE SYNCHRONOUS DRAM)
Note:
SDR (Single Data Rate ) VS DDR (Double Data Rate)
SDR(SINGLE DATA RATE)
 SDR uses only rising edges of the Clock Signal to sends data.
DDR (Double DATA RATE)
 DDR uses both rising & falling edges of the Clock Signal.
 It is faster then SDR because it sends double amount of data in each Clock
Signal.
 It reads or writes two consecutive words per clock cycle.
 Has 184 pins.
 TYPES OF DYNAMIC RAM (DRAM)
DDR2
 Faster then DDR1 because it sends twice the amount of data then DDR1.
 DDR2 reads or writes 4 WORDS of data per clock cycle.
 Has 240 pins.
 Consumes less power then DDR1.
DDR3
 DDR2 reads or writes 8 data words per clock cycle.
 Has 288 pins.
 Faster then DDR2.
 Consumes less power then DDR2.
 STATIC RAM
 Static Ram is made up of CMOS (Complementary metal oxide )
Technology and uses six transistors.
 Static Ram is a type of semi conductor memory where the word
static refers that “ it doesn’t need to be periodically refreshed to
retain its data”.
 Complex in structure (because Flip Flop are used) that holds each
bit of data.
 Faster than DRAM.
 Consumes Less Power but more Expensive then DRAM.
COMPARISON
 Cache Memory
Cache Memory , also called as CPU Memory is a small and very fast temporary
storage memory. It is designed to speed up the transfer of data and instructions.
or
Cache Memory is a type of Computer Memory that stores the data so future
requests for that data can be served faster.
 It is located inside or close to the CPU chip.
 It is faster than RAM, and the data or instructions that are recently or most
frequently used by CPU are stored in cache.
 The data and instructions are retrieved from RAM when CPU uses them for the
first time. A copy of that data or instructions is stored in cache. The next time
the CPU needs that data or instructions, it first looks in cache. If the required
data is found there, it is retrieved from cache memory instead of main memory.
It speeds up the working of CPU.
 . A cache hit occurs when the requested data can be found in a cache, while
a cache miss occurs when it cannot
 Levels of Cache Memory
There are three levels of Cache Memory.
1. L1 Cache
2. L2 Cache
3. L3 Cache
L1 Cache:
It is also called primary or internal cache. It is built directly into the processor chip.
It has small capacity from 8 Kb 128 Kb.
L2 Cache:
It is slower than L1 cache. Its storage capacity is more, i-e. From 64 Kb to 16 MB.
The current processors contain advanced transfer cache on processor chip that is a
type of L2 cache. The common size of this cache is from 512 kb to 8 Mb.
L3 Cache:
This cache is separate from processor chip on the motherboard. It exists on the
computer that uses L2 advanced transfer cache. It is slower than L1 and L2 cache.
The personal computer often has up to 8 MB of L3 cache.
 ROM(READ ONLY MEMORY)
 A special type of RAM called ROM(Read Only Memory) is a non-volatile memory
in which data is stored permanently and can’t be altered by users.
 Storing data permanently into this kind of memory is called, “Burning the Data”
because data is stored in such memory by using fuse-links.
 Data stored in ROM chip can only be Read and Use, it can not be changed, this
is the reason that’s why it is called as ROM
 ROM is also known as “Permanent Stores” or “Dead stores” or “Field Stores”.
Note:
 ROM is mainly used to store programs and data that don’t change
and are frequently used.
 ROM is used by manufacturers to store micro programs that can’t
be modified by users.
E.g. System boot program written in BIOS , is a micro program that
contains a start up set of instructions to check if the system hardware
like memory, input output devices are functioning properly etc.

TYPES OF
PROM (Programmable Read Only Memory)
ROM
 EPROM (Erasable Programmable Read Only Memory)
PROM (Programmable Read Only Memory):
 Also known as OTP-NVM (One time programmable Read Only Memory Non Volatile
Memory) .
 In PROM, a memory chip in which data can be written only once, and once it is written, it
remains their forever i.e. it become ROM.
 The data can be written in PROM using a special device called as “PROM-Programmer”.
EPROM( Erasable Programmable Read Only Memory)
 As we know that , once an information is stored in PROM can’t be altered or erased,
EPROM overcomes this problem.
 In EPROM, as its name implies, it is possible to erase information stored in EPROM chip
and chip can be reprogrammed to store new information or data.
 EPROM has two types.
1. UVEPROM (Ultra Violet EPROM)
2. EEPROM( Electrical EPROM)
 TYPES OF ROM
UVEPROM(Ultra Violet Erasable Programmable Read Only Memory):
 A special type of EPROM in which information is erased by using Ultra Violet light or Rays.
 It takes up to 20 minutes to remove the data from chip.
 It is expensive.
EEPROM (Electrical Programmable Read Only Memory):
 A special type of PROM in which information or data is erased by using high voltage
electric pulses.
 EEPROM is also known as Flash memory.
 It takes seconds to remove the data from chip.
 It is cheaper than UVEPROM.
 Computer Bus
 As we know that, inside the computer, there are several internal components, in
order for these components to communicate with each other, they make use of
wires, these wires are known as buses.
 It is a set of parallel lines used to connect the different components of a
computer.
 All these components are connected with the set of parallel wires or lines.
 All these wires or lines are used to transfer data in the form of bits from one
component to another.
Types of Computer Bus:
1. System Bus
1. Control Bus
2. Address Bus
3. Data Bus
2. Expansion Bus
 System Bus
Control Bus:
 Control Bus is responsible for to transfer control signals from one component to
another.
 Control signals include “Set of Instructions or Commands”.
 It specifies the type of operation to be performed.
 It also transmits the control signal like Acknowledgement (Ack).
i.e. When a CPU gives command to memory for writing the data, than the memory
sends an acknowledgement signal to CPU, after successfully writing of data.
Control Signal Commands Description
MEMORY WRITE Used to write the data to the given
memory

MEMORY READ Used to read the data from the memory

I/O WRITE Used to write some data on output device

I/O READ Used to read data from input device

BUS REQUEST Used to request the control on Bus so that

the requesting component can use it to
transmit the data
BUS GRANT Used by Bus Controller to indicate the
grant of Bus to a component
TRANSFER ASK Used to request for data transfer
 System Bus
Address Bus:
 Address bus is used to carry the Address Signal to Read & Write
data in the Memory.
 Address Bus is uni-directional.

Data Bus:
 Data Bus is used to transfer the data from one component to
another.
 These Buses are 32 to 64 parallel lines of data bus.
 Data Bus is bi directional.
 System Bus
Expansion Bus:
 As the major components are connected to System Bus but the
remaining components are connected with Expansion Bus
(Expansion Bus is then connected to System Bus).
 Secondary Storage
It is also known as Permanent Storage, Auxiliary Storage or Backing Storage
Devices.
 Secondary Storage devices are used to store data permanently.
 They are non-volatile i.e. data is not lost when power goes off.
 The capacity of these devices is very high as compared to primary storage
devices.
 They are cost effective or cheaper as compared to Primary Storage devices.
 There are two types of Secondary Storage Devices.
1. Sequential Access Devices
2. Direct Access Devices
 Secondary Storage
Sequential Access or Serial Access
SAM is a storage system where data is stored and read in a linear or sequential
order.

Advantage:
The main advantage of this type of storage over Direct Access or Random Access is,
cost i.e. Sequential Storage Devices are much cheaper to produce rather than
Direct Access Storage Devices.

Dis Advantage:
The major drawback of this type of memory is that it usually takes longer to access
particular piece of data.
Examples are: Magnetic Tape
 Secondary Storage
Direct Access or Random Access Storage:
Direct Access, also called as Random Access is a storage system where data is
stored and read directly or randomly from the storage devices.

Advantage:
The main advantage of this type of Storage is enabling the computer or user to
retrieve information directly without having to scan a series of record.
Therefore, it takes less time to write or read the record.

Dis Advantage:
The major drawback of this type of memory is cost, these types of memory devices
are costly to produce.
Examples are: Magnetic Disks, Optical Disks etc.
Secondary Storage
Secondary Storage
 Secondary Storage
Magnetic Tape:
 Magnetic Tape is the popular storage medium for large data that are accessed
and processed sequentially.
 Physically, Magnetic Tape is a plastic ribbon, which is usually ½ or ¼ inch wide
and 50-2400 feet long.

Plastic ribbon is coated with a magnetizable

recording material such as iron oxide or chromium
Dioxide.
Data are recorded on the tape in the form of
tiny invisible magnetized and non-magnetized
Spots (representing 1s and 0s) on its coated
Surface.
 Magnetic Tape
 Tape ribbon is stored in reels or a small cartridge or cassette.

Organization:
A tape is divided into vertical columns called, frames and horizontal rows called
channels or tracks.
Older tape has 7 tracks and used 6-bit BCD code format for data recording.
The first 6 tracks are used for recording and the seventh track is used for recording
parity bit.
 Secondary Storage

 Modern magnetic tapes have 9 tracks and use the 8-bit EBCDIC code for data
recording.
 The 4th track is used for parity bit.
 Secondary Storage
 Note: On magnetic tape, records are separated by blank spaces, called IRG
(Inter record gaps). Each IRG is of the order of 0.5 inches.
 Modern magnetic tapes can store data up to 5 TB’s.
 Magnetic Disk
 Most popular Direct Access or Random Access storage device.
 Physically, the Magnetic disk is thin, circular plate or platter made of metal or
plastic that is usually coated on both sides with a magnetizable recording
material such as iron-oxide.
 Data are recorded on the disk in the form of tiny invisible magnetized or non-
magnetized spots (representing 1s and 0s) on the coated surface of the disk.

Storage Organization:
The surface of a disk is divided into a number of
invisible concentric circles called tracks.

These track are numbered consecutively from

outermost to innermost starting from zero.

These concentric circles are further divided into invisible pie-shaped segments
called sector.
Magnetic Disk
 Types of Magnetic Disk
• There are following different types of Magnetic
Disk.

Floppy Disk
Floppy disks are also known as Floppies or diskettes.
 They were introduces by IBM in 1972.
 Floppy disks are old type of magnetic storages.
 A Floppy disk is flat, circular piece of flexible plastic, coated with magnetic oxide
that is further encased in square plastic or vinyl jacket cover.
 Digital information is stored in floppy disks in form of small magnetized and
non-magnetized spots representing (1s and 0s).
 Maximum storage capacity of floppy disk is 1.44 MB.
 Due to there limited storage size these have been obsolete now.

Zip Disks
Zip disk is similar to Floppy disk.
 Zip disks have much higher capacity than Floppy disks.
 Most Floppy drives stores data 1.44 MB up to 2.88 MB.
 Whereas Zip disks can have capacity up to 750 MB.