OSI MODEL

DATA COMMUNICATION STANDARDS

• Data Communication Standards , are also called Network Protocols.
• Protocols are set of rules that govern data communication( exchange of
information or data) over the networks.
• Computers connected to network have to know in advance exactly how
information is to be exchanged and precisely what the format will be.
• Basically, protocols provide guidelines to manufacturers, vendors, government
agencies, and other service providers to ensure the kind of interconnectivity of
networks for communication..
• Some examples of communication standards are
– TCP/IP ( for UNIX, WINDOWS NT, WINDOWS 95 and other platforms)
– IPX (Internetwork Packet Exchange) for Novell NetWare
– DECnet (for networking Digital Equipment Corporation Computers)
– AppleTalk (for Macintosh computers)
– NetBIOS / NetBEUI (for LAN Managers and WINDOWS NT networks) etc.
 OSI MODEL
• OSI stands for Open System Interconnection and developed by ISO ( International
Standards Organization or International Organization for Standardization (Multinational
body).
• OSI model is also known as Reference Model or 7- layers Model.
• OSI Model is a reference tool for understanding data communications between any two
networked systems.
• It divides the communication processes into 7-layers where each layer includes multiple
hardware standards, protocols and other types of services, and these layers are
1. Application Layer
2. Presentation Layer
3. Session Layer
4. Transport Layer
5. Network Layer
6. Data Link Layer
7. Physical Layer
OSI MODEL
Note:
The Main Purpose of
studying OSI is to
help users
understand the big
picture of
networking.
 APPLICATION LAYER
• Application Layer provides an interface and services (Email, File Transferring, Remote Computing
etc.) for the end user, operating a device connected to a network.
• This layer is WHAT THE USER SEES, in terms of loading an application (such as web
browsers ,Facebook, yahoo or emails etc.) and everything at this layer is application specific.
• In short, this layer deals with networking applications.
• The PDU for application layer is User Data. What is PDU?
• Some protocols used by Application Layer are: PDU stands for
HTTP (Hypertext Transfer Protocol) – 80 (used to access web pages Protocol Data Unit.
Over browser). PDU is group of
FTP (File Transfer Protocol) – 20,21 (used to send and retrieve files) information added by
TFTP (Trivial File Transfer Protocol) 69-Used to transfer the files rapidly
each layer in OSI
Model.
Telnet -23 (used to connect remote devices)
Typically, it describes
SMTP (Simple Mail Transfer Protocol) -25 used to send emails.
the format of the data
POP3 (Post Office Protocol 3) -110 used to retrieve emails.
that are transferred
DHCP -67,68 ( Dynamic Host Control Protocol) used to assign IP addresses
from each layer.
And DNS information automatically to hosts.
DNS -53 (used to translate IP Addresses)
SNMP (Simple Network Management Protocol) - 161/162
NCP (NetWare Core Protocol) - 123
NTP (Network Time Protocol) used to synchronize clock
AppleTalk etc.
 PRESENTATION LAYER
• Presentation layer prepares the data. It takes data from application layer and marks it
with formatting code such as .doc, .jpg, .txt, .avi. etc.
• These file extensions make it easy to realize that particular file is formatted with
particular type of application.
• Presentation Layer also performs
– Translation ( e.g. ASCII to EBCDIC)
– Encryption / Decryption (relates to security i.e. conversion of plain text to cipher & vice versa)
– Compression / Decompression (reduces the file especially audio, video etc.)
• Presentation Layer is sometimes also known as Syntax Layer.
• The PDU for Presentation Layer is Formatted Data.
• Some frequently used protocols in Presentation Layer are:
JPEG (Joint Photographic Expert Group)
PNG (Portable Network Graphics)
AVI (Audio Video Interleaved)
NCP (NetWare Core Protocol)
AFP (Apple Filing Protocol)
SSL (Secure Socket Layer)
PAD (Packet Assembler /Disassembler)
NDR (Network Data Representation) etc.
MIME (Multipurpose Internet Mail Extensions)
 SESSION LAYER
Session Layer is sometimes called as “Port Layer”.
• Session Layer deals with connections.
• It establishes , manages, and terminates sessions between two communicating nodes or hosts.
• The session layer basically keeps one application's data separate from other application's data
• Session layer also performs
Dialog Control : This layer allows two systems to start communication with each other either in half-
duplex or in full duplex.
Synchronization: This layer allows a process to add checkpoints which are considered as synchronization
points into stream of data.
Example: If a system is sending a file of 800 pages, adding checkpoints after every 50 pages is
recommended. This ensures that 50 page unit is successfully received and acknowledged. This is
beneficial at the time of crash as if a crash happens at page number 110; there is no need to retransmit 1
to100 pages.
• The PDU of Session Layer is Formatted Data.
• Some frequently used protocols in Session Layer are:
SQL (Structured Query Language) – SQL is a language that interacts with DBMS.
RPC (Remote Procedure Call Protocol)
NETBIOS
PPTP ( Point to Point Tunneling Protocol)
L2TP (Layer 2 Tunneling Protocol)
PAP (Password Authentication Protocol)
ADSP( AppleTalk Data Stream Protocol)
ASP (AppleTalk Session Protocol) , DNS etc
 TRANSPORT LAYER
As its name implies, transport layer handles the transportation of data segments between
network devices. It is responsible for process-to-process delivery of the entire message.
Or in other words, we can say that transport layer is responsible for end to end delivery of
the message from source to destination.
Transport layer provides the following services
 Segmentation
 Numbering and Sequencing
 Flow control
 Reliable and unreliable data delivery
 Error control
 Connection multiplexing
 TRANSPORT LAYER
Segmentation
“Segmentation is the process of breaking down the large data file into small blocks or
chunks, known as Segments, and the size of each segment is MSS(Maximum Segment Size)
that is accommodated by network”.
Example:
Let assume that you want to download a movie size of 700 MB from internet. You have 2
MBPS internet connection.
How will you download a 700 MB movie on 2 MBPS internet speed.
___________________________________________________________________________
In this case Segmentation process is used.
o On Server, transport layer breaks 700 MB movie in smaller size of segments ( less than
your internet connection speed) .
o Lets assume that 700 MB movie is divided in 700 segments and each segment has the
MSS (Max Segment Size) 1 MB that your PC can easily download at current connection
speed.
o Now , your PC will download 700 small files instead of one large file, and once your PC
(browser) receives all segments from server, transport layer at your PC will reassemble
all segments back in a single 700 MB file; that is nothing but Fragmentation.
Note: Reassembly is also done by Transport Layer at the receiving host.
 TRANSPORT LAYER
Numbering and Sequencing
At the time of segmentation, transport layer also adds the header on each segment , known
as Sequence No.
 Each segment header contains a sequence number. This sequence no. allows the
transport layer on the destination host to reassemble the segments in the order which
they were transmitted.
 This sequence no. is important because networks may provide multiple routes , and at
the destination side data can arrive in wrong order, by numbering and sequencing the
segments , the transport layer can ensure that these segments are reassembled into the
proper order.
 TRANSPORT LAYER
Reliable and unreliable data delivery
Before the transmission of data, connection is established between sender and receiver ;
and decision has to be taken that data transmission should be reliable or unreliable.
There are two protocols are used to transmit the data reliably and unreliably i.e. TCP and
UDP.

TCP(Transmission Control Protocol)

 TCP is a connection-oriented protocol i.e. It establishes a connection between
source and destination before starting the communication or sending data.
How TCP sets – up the Logical Connection ?

By using TCP handshaking

Three way handshake
 TRANSPORT LAYER
SYN = Synchronize ,ACK=Acknowledgement
 Here host A sends SYN request to host B
 After receiving the SYN request from
host A , host B replies it with SYN-ACK
 Host A receives host B SYN-ACK message
and again send ACK to host B
LOGICAL CONNECTION ESTABLISHED
 TRANSPORT LAYER
 Once the connection is established between hosts, data transmission will be initiated.
 To provide maximum reliability , TCP performs following functions
1. Detect Lost Packets and resend them
2. Detect Packets that arrived out of order and reorder them
3. Avoid congestion by implementing flow control
4. Recognize duplicate packets and drop extra packets

 It is highly reliable , as it uses 3 way handshake , flow control , error control and
congestion control.
 It makes sure or guaranteed that data sent from source computer are received
accurately by the destination computer.
 Some protocols used by TCP are : HTTP, HTTPS , FTP ,SMTP , Telnet , etc.
 TRANSPORT LAYER
UDP (User datagram Protocol)
 UDP is connection less protocol i.e. no connection is established between sender and
receiver before the transmission of data.
 Connection less approach is said to be unreliable ; it doesn’t mean that data isn’t going
to get its destination; its only means that it isn’t guaranteed to get its destination.
 UDP is used to transfer data at a faster rate.
 It is less reliable and so used for transmitting data such as audio , video etc.
 UDP neither guarantees the delivery of data nor does it retransmits the lost packets.

 Some frequently used UDP protocols are : DNS , DHCP ,TFTP, SNMP ,VOIP, RIP etc.
 TRANSPORT LAYER
UDP (User datagram Protocol)
 In UDP, When multiple datagrams are sent to a destination, they may take different
paths and arrive in the wrong order.
 UDP does not keep track of sequence numbers the way TCP does. UDP has no way to
reorder the datagrams into their transmission order.
 Therefore, UDP simply reassembles the data in the order that it was received and
forwards it to the application.
 If the sequence of the data is important to the application, the application will have to
identify the proper sequence of the data and determine how the data should be
processed.
 TRANSPORT LAYER
.

Note:
The UDP PDU is referred
to as a datagram,
although the
terms segment and
datagram are sometimes
used interchangeably to
describe a Transport layer
PDU
 TRANSPORT LAYER
Other differences are:
 Both TCP and UDP can check errors , but only TCP can correct the error since it has both
congestion and flow control.
 TCP does Flow Control whereas UDP does not have an option for Flow Control.

Conclusion
Both TCP and UDP have their advantages and disadvantages. UDP is faster, simpler and
efficient and hence generally used for sending audio, video files, and TCP, on the other hand,
is robust, reliable and guarantees the delivery of packets in the same order.
Hence, we conclude that both TCP and UDP are essential for data transmission.
Special Stuff :
 Some Protocols that used both TCP & UDP are DNS, Syslog etc.
 Some Protocols that neither use TCP nor UDP ,they have their own delivery mechanism
EIGRP (Enhances Interior Gateway Routing Protocol) ,OSPF (Open Shortest Path First)
etc.
Port No : port no. is the 16-bit no corresponding to different protocols either uses TCP or
UDP.
 TRANSPORT LAYER
Flow Control
 Network hosts have limited resources such as memory or bandwidth.
 When transport layer is aware that these resources are overtaxed, some protocols can
request to sending application running at sender side reduce the rate of data flow.
 Flow control can prevent the loss of segments on the network and avoid the need of
retransmission.
The transport layer implements two flow control methods.
1. Ready / Not Ready Signals Method
2. Windowing
Ready / Not Ready Signals Method
 In this method sender sends data according to its buffer size, whereas receiver receives
data In its buffer size.
 when receivers buffer get filled, it sends not ready signal to sender, so that sender can
stop transmitting more segments.
 Receiver sends ready signal when it become ready to receive next segments.
This method has following two problems.
 TRANSPORT LAYER
Problem with Ready/Not Ready Signal:
 First, Receiver may respond to the sender with a NOT READY SIGNAL only
when its buffer fills up. While this message on its way to the sender, the sender
is still sending the segments to the receiver, which the receiver will have to
drop because its buffer space is full.

Windowing :
 In windowing , a window size is defined between sender and receiver .
 Sender host will wait for an acknowledgement signal after sending the segments equal
to the window size.
 If any packet lost in the way ,receiver will respond with acknowledgement for lost packet
and sender will send lost packet again.
 Note: window size is automatically set during the three step handshake process . It can
be adjust anytime throughout the lifetime of connection.
Note: Window size determines the number of bytes send before an acknowledgement is expected.
Also called a Sliding Windows.
 TRANSPORT LAYER
Error Control:
Transport Layer ensures that the complete message arrives at the receiving transport layer
without any error. Error correction is done through retransmission.
Connection multiplexing:
 Transport layer multiplexes connections that allow multiple applications to
simultaneously send and receive data.
 Simply Connection multiplexing feature allows multiple applications to connect at a
time.
 To make connection multiplexing possible, transport layer assigns a unique set of
numbers for each connection. These numbers are called port number or socket
numbers.
 These port numbers allow multiple applications to send and receive data simultaneously.
 NETWORK LAYER
 Network Layer is also known as CISCO Layer.
 Network layer is responsible for the source to destination OR HOST TO HOST or Machine to
Machine delivery of a packet across multiple networks i.e. if two systems are attached to
different networks with devices like routers, then network layer is used.
 Basically, network layer is responsible for logically addressing the packet and the path
determination.
 Addressing is done through routed protocols such as IP, IPX , AppleTalk, and DECnet.
 Path Selection is done by routing protocols such as RIP, IGRP, EIGRP, OSPF ,and BGP.
 The PDU of the network layer is Packet or Datagram.
 Router and some special purpose Switches (Layer 3 Switches) operates on network layer.
 Some protocols used by this layer are :
 IPv4 , IPv6, ICMP ,IPsec (IP Security) ,IPX (Internetwork Packet Exchange), IGMP (Internet Group
Management Protocol) etc.
 Primary jobs of network layer include:
 Logical Addressing
 Routing
 Switching (Packet Switching, Circuit Switching, Message Switching)
 Fragmentation
 Error Handling
Note: Packet Switching is the responsibility of Network Layer, Circuit Switching is the
responsibility of Physical Layer.
 NETWORK LAYER
Logical Addressing
 Each node over the network must have a logical address in order to
communicate , using IPV4 OR IPV6.
 These logically addresses can be assigned statically or dynamically via DHCP
server.
IP (Internet Protocol)
An IP Address, short for Internet Protocol provides an identity to a computer or
any other device that is connected to a network so that each computer or device
on network can communicate with other device.
e.g. 192.168.10.23 or 11000111 . 00110010 . 11111111. 10101010
Types of IP Address w.r.t Version:
1. IPV4 (Internet Protocol Version 4)
2. IPV6 (Internet Protocol Version 6)
 NETWORK LAYER
IPv4
• IPv4 is a 32 bit IP Address.
• IPv4 is numeric address whose
binary bits are separated by dot
(.)
• 4 octets (8 bit group)
• IPv4 has five different classes of
IP Address.
Class A, Class B, Class C, Class D,
Class E
 IPv4 has limited number of IP
Addresses i.e. up to 4.19 billion.
 E.g. is 192.168.12.14
IPv6
• IPv6 is 128 bit IP Address.
• IPv6 is an alphanumeric address
whose binary bits are separated by
colon ( : )
• In its full notation, an IPv6 address is
represented in eight groups of four
hexadecimal digits (eight 16-bit
blocks)
• IPv6 is classless address i.e. it does not
have any different classes as IPv4.
• IPv6 has unlimited number of IP
Addresses i.e. up to 2 128 IP Addresses.
• E.g.
2001:0db8:0a0b:12f0:0000:0000:0000
:0001
 NETWORK LAYER
Routing
 Routers appends Layer 4 (Transport Layer) data to Layer 3 (Network Layer) and
then send data down to Layer 2 i.e. Data Link Layer.
 Network Layer Header contains IP Addressing information.
 Routing information determines best path.
Error Handling
 ICMP (Internet Control Message Protocol) is used to send Error Messages.
 Utilized by PING & TRACEROUTE (tracert).
 DATALINK LAYER
 Data Link layer provides connections between hosts on same network i.e. it
provides a means for exchanging data over a common local media.
 Simply , it is responsible for node to node or hop to hop communication.
 The PDU of Data Link layer is Frame.
 Communication devices operates on network layer are Network Bridges,
Switches etc.
Some specific responsibilities of data link layer include:
 Framing
 Addressing
 Synchronization
 Flow control (Different Algos such as Stop & Wait,GBN – Go back N etc.)
 This flow control is between node to node (not host to host as done by Transport Layer flow control)
 Error Control (Hop to Hop – CRC , Checksum , Parity bit or Hamming Code etc.)
 Multi-Access or Access Control (CSMA/CD , ALOHA, Token Ring or Token Bus etc.)

Note: CRC Method is used by Data Link Layer; Checksum is used by Transport Layer.
 DATALINK LAYER
Framing:
 The data link layer takes the packets it gets from the network layer and encapsulates
them into frames for transmission, then it sends each frame bit-by-bit on the hardware.
 At receiver’s end , data link layer picks up signals from hardware and assembles them
into frames.
 Each frame contains a frame header, a payload field for holding the packet, and a frame
trailer. Trailer
Header Payload
CRC

 Header contains the information such as Source Mac and Destination Mac.
 Payload is the actual data or message.
 Trailer contains some extra bits for Error detection and Error Correction.
Frame Trailer :
The frame trailer usually consists of a CRC(Cyclic Redundancy Check)/checksum value of the
whole frame, for error detection purposes. CRC/Checksums are basically mathematical
functions applied on the frame contents, to detect bit corruption due to different noise
sources on the link. While the sender adds a checksum to every frame, the receiver verifies
the checksum independently, before accepting a frame as valid.
The frame trailer may also optionally have an End-Of-Frame Detector Flag (EFD-Flag), for
the receiver to know the end of a particular frame.
 DATALINK LAYER
Physical Addressing:
 the Data Link layer adds a header to the frame in order to define physical
address i.e. MAC Address of the sender or receiver of the frame, if the frames
are to be distributed to different systems on the network
MAC Address:
 MAC Address is a 48 bit or 12 digit hexadecimal number that is used for
communication between two hosts in an Ethernet environment, it is also
known as Hardware Address, because it is burned on Network Adapter or NIC.
 Sometimes also known as Physical Address.
 E.g. 00-21-6A-B0-AC-24
Synchronization:
When data frames are sent on the link, both machines must be synchronized in
order to transfer to take place.
 DATALINK LAYER
Multi-Access:
 When host on the shared link tries to transfer the data, it has a high probability
of collision.
 Data-link layer provides mechanism such as CSMA/CD to equip capability of
accessing a shared media among multiple Systems.
Some protocols used by Data Link Layer are:
 PPP (Point to Point Protocol)
 SDLC (Synchronous Data Link Protocol)
 HDLC (High - level Data Link Protocol)
 ATM (Asynchronous Transfer Mode)
 Frame Relay
Note:802.3 (Ethernet), 802.11 (Wi-Fi),
 PHYSICAL LAYER
 Physical Layer is the lowest layer and is concerned with wiring and electrical
standards.
 Physical Layer deals with communication media.
 This layer receive frames from data link layer and convert them into bits and
then loads these bits on actual communication media such as twisted pair,
coaxial, fiber optics or other wireless media like Radio waves, Microwaves etc.
 The physical layer technologies are defined by organizations such as:
 ISO (International Organization for Standardization)
 IEEE (Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers)
 ANSI (American National Standards Institute)
 ITU (International Telecommunication) etc.
 Devices Operates on Physical Layer are Hubs, Repeaters , Modem etc.
 PHYSICAL LAYER
Following are a few physical responsibilities are
Representation of Bits
Bits must be encoded into transmission for transmission. It also defines the type of
encoding.
Data Rate
It also defines the rate of transmission in bits per second (bps)
Synchronization
Synchronization is done at bit level.
Interface
It defines the transmission interface between devices and transmission medium.
Line configuration
It defines whether transmission is point-to-point to multi-point.
Topologies
It ensures devices must be connected using topologies: star, bus, mesh, ring
Transmission mode
It defines the direction of transmission: simplex, half duplex or full duplex.
PHYSICAL LAYER
SUMMARY