Biology & Behaviour

Chapter 2
Why study the brain and nervous system?
• If we can understand how the brain, the nerves, and the glands
interact to control feelings, thoughts and behaviour, we can begin to
truly understand the complex organism called a human being

• Every thought we think, every emotion we feel, every sensation we

experience, every decision we reach, every move we make—in short,
all human behaviour—is rooted in a biological event.
Neuroscience• The field of neuroscience deals with the
structure and functioning of the brain and the
neurons, nerves, and nervous tissues that form
the nervous system
• Especially focusing on their relationship to
behaviour and learning
The Neuron
• All our thoughts, feelings, and behaviours can be traced to the activity
of specialized cells called neurons

• (1) Afferent (sensory) neurons relay information from the sense

organs and receptors to the brain or spinal cord
• (2) Efferent (motor) neurons convey signals from the brain and spinal
cord to the glands and muscles, enabling us to move
• (3) Interneurons carry information between neurons in the brain and
between neurons in the spinal cord
The Structure of the Neuron
 • Dendrites receive messages from other neurons

• The axon (the neuron’s information highway) carries

messages destined for other cells
The • In general, the axon is the longest part of the neuron

Structure of • The myelin sheath contains glial cells that wrap themselves
the Neuron around the axon, providing a protective coating and
increasing the velocity of the electrical impulse.

• The axons terminate at the terminal buttons

• It is at the terminal button where synaptic transmission
(transmission of messages) between neurons (or a tissue) occurs.
Supporting the Neurons
• Glial cells:
• Remove dead neurons and waste products from the nervous system, nourish and insulate
neurons, and direct their growth.
How Neurons Fire
• Action Potential:
• An electrical nerve impulse that travels through a neuron, changing the cell’s
charge from negative to positive

• Note:
• Just after an action potential has passed through a section of the axon, the
cell membrane in that region can not admit positive ions again for a few
milliseconds, and so a neuron cannot fire again immediately no matter how
much stimulation it receives
How Neurons Fire
• Excitatory messages:
• A chemical message that makes it more likely that a receiving neuron will fire
and an action potential will travel down its axon.

• Inhibitory Messages:
• A chemical message that prevents or decreases the likelihood of a receiving
neuron firing.
 Neurotransmitters
– Chemicals that carry messages across
the synapse to the dendrite (and
sometimes the cell body) of a receiver
neuron

 Synapse
– A chemical connection that bridges
the gap between two neurons
 Acetylcholine (ACh)
 Effect
 Can be either excitatory or inhibitory
 Excitatory  skeletal muscle fibers & learning new information
 Inhibitory  muscle fibers in the heart

 Function
– Controls voluntary muscle contractions
– Involved in cognitive functioning

 Interesting Notes:
 Botulism, a disease that stems from food poisoning, prevents the release of ACh and may cause paralysis
  Effect
Dopamine – Inhibitory or excitatory

 Function
– Learning, attention, movement and reinforcement
– Important to our ability to feel pleasure and pain

 Interesting Notes:
 Deficiencies of dopamine are linked to Parkinson’s disease
 People with Schizophrenia may have more receptor sites for
dopamine in an area of the brain that is involved in emotional
responding
 For this reason they may “over utilize” the dopamine
available; which is connected with hallucinations and
disturbances of thought and emotion
Norepinephrine

• Effect:
• Acts as both a neurotransmitter and hormone
• Excitatory

• Function:
• Speeds up heartbeat and other body processes involved in arousal, learning and memory,
and eating

Interesting Notes:
Excesses and deficiencies have been linked to mood disorders
Stimulants like cocaine and amphetamines boost norepinephrine leading to persistent
arousal
Serotonin  Effect
– Inhibitory

 Function
– Regulates mood, sleep, impulsivity, aggression and
appetite

 Interesting Notes:
 Deficiencies in Serotonin have been linked to
eating disorders, alcoholism, depression,
aggression, and insomnia
 The drug LSD decreases action of serotonin
By inhibiting an inhibitor it increases brain activity, in
this case often producing hallucinations
Gamma-aminobutyric Acid (GABA)

 Effect
– Main inhibitory neurotransmitter to the brain

 Function
– Facilitate the control of anxiety

 Interesting Notes:
 Tranquilizers and alcohol may lower anxiety by binding with GABA receptors and amplifying
the effects
 An abnormality in the neurons that secrete GABA is believed to be one of the causes of
epilepsy
Endorphins  Effect
– Primarily inhibitory, except in hippocampus

 Function
– Pain suppression, pleasurable feelings, appetite,
placebos

 Interesting Notes:
 Thought to be responsible for the “placebo effect”
 Endorphins may also enhance the functioning of the
immune system, and be connected with the pleasurable
“runner’s high” report by many athletes
Central Nervous System
The Spinal Cord
• The spinal cord links the body with the brain
• Protected by bone and spinal fluid
• Transmits messages between the brain and the peripheral nervous system

• Spinal Reflexes
• Can act independently of the brain for survival purposes
The Brain Stem
• Handles functions that are vital to our physical survival
• Damage to it is life threatening

• Medulla
• Controls heart beat, breathing, blood pressure, coughing and swallowing
• Reticular Formation
• Crucial role in arousal and attention
• Screens messages entering the brain
• Pons
• Plays a role in body movement and exerts an influence on sleep and dreaming
The Cerebellum
• Two hemispheres

• Main functions are to execute smooth, skilled movements and to

regulate muscle tone and posture
The Thalamus
• Function: serves as a relay station for virtually all the information that
flows into and out of the higher brain centers
• Also affects our ability to learn new information, especially if it’s verbal

• Pain signals connect directly with the thalamus, which send the pain
message to the appropriate sensory areas of the cerebral cortex
The Hypothalamus
• The most influential structure in the brain
• Regulates hunger, thirst, sexual behavior, and a wide variety of
emotional behaviours
• Also regulates body temperature and our biological clocks
The Cerebral Hemispheres
• The cerebrum is composed of two cerebral hemispheres
• These are physically connected by a thick band of nerve fibers called the corpus callosum

• The cerebral hemispheres have a thin outer covering called the cerebral cortex,
which is primarily responsibly for the higher mental processes of language,
memory, and thinking
The Specialization of the Hemispheres

 Hemispheres
– two symmetrical left and right
halves of the brain that
control the side of the body
opposite to their location

 Lateralization
– the dominance of one
hemisphere of the brain in
specific functions
• Left hemisphere • Right hemisphere
• Language • Nonverbal
• Speech • Perceptual skills
• Writing • Visualization
• Calculation • Recognition of patterns, faces,
melodies
• Time sense
• Recognition and expression of
• Rhythm emotion
• Ordering of complex movements • Spatial skills
• Simple language comprehension
The Split Brain

 Right and left hemispheres

 Surgically cutting the corpus callosum

Split-Brain Patients
 Split Brain Patients
– a person who suffers from independent functioning of the two halves of the
brain
• Essentially two brains in one body

• http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=ZMLzP1VCANo
• Approx 4:30m
Lobes of
the Brain
Frontal Lobes
• The decision-making part of the brain and also associated with
voluntary muscle movement

• On the side of the frontal lobe lies the primary motor strip (motor
cortext).
• This area is dedicated to the voluntary movements for particular parts of our
body.
• Some parts of our body (e. g. hands) have a larger area dedicated to their
movement as compared to other parts (e. g. wrist).
Broca’s Area

• Broca’s area is located within the frontal lobe (on the left hemisphere for the
majority of individuals) and controls speech production.

• Damage to this area results in Broca’s aphasia and results in the individual
struggling to produce words.
• “I put the book on the table” comes out as “I…put…book…table”

• https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=JWC-cVQmEmY
Frontal Association Areas
• Much of the frontal lobe consists of association areas that are
involved in thinking, motivation, planning for the future, impulse
control, and emotional responses
Parietal Lobe • Your touch sensation center, where your skin
sends signals when touched to feel pressure
and cold

• The somatosensory strip is located on the side

of the parietal lobe.
• It has specific areas that are responsible for
receiving bodily sensations for specific areas of the
body.
• Again, it is significant to note that more brain real
estate is distributed for some areas of the body as
compared to others (e. g. lips/face vs. leg). The
more real estate, the more neurons that increase
the sensitivity of that area.
Occipital Lobes
• The occipital lobe is the region where visual input is registered

• Primary Visual Cortex

• The association areas in the occipital lobes are involved in the interpretation of
visual stimuli. The association areas hold memories of past visual experiences and
enable us to recognize what is familiar among the things we see
Temporal Lobes

• Largely associated with language production and understanding

• The temporal lobes are the primary site where auditory information
is registered.
• Primary Auditory Cortex
Wernicke’s Area
• Involved in comprehending the spoken word and in formulating
coherent written and spoken language

• Wernicke’s Aphasia
• Although speech is fluent and words are clearly articulated, the actual
message does not make sense to others
• Because people with this type of aphasia are not aware that anything is
wrong with their speech, this disorder is difficult to treat

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=3oef68YabD0
The Brain Across
The Lifespan
Brain Across the Lifespan
• The brain does not fully develop until well into adulthood

• The brain never stops changing

• Both gains and loses synapses throughout the lifespan

• At some point losses begin to exceed gains

• Brain weight begins to decline around age 30
Brain Damage
• We now know that the hippocampus can regenerate neurons caused
by brain damage
• Damaged neurons can sprout new dendrites and re-establish connections
with other neurons to assume some of the functions of the brain cells that
were lost; and axons are able to regenerate and grow

• NeuroPlasticity
• Some abilities lost through brain damage can be regained if areas near the
damaged site take over the lost function
The Peripheral
Nervous System
Peripheral Nervous System
• The part of the nervous system that includes the autonomic and somatic
subdivisions

• Made up of neurons with long axons and dendrites, it branches out from the
spinal cord and brain and reaches the extremities of the body
Somatic Nervous System
• The part of the peripheral nervous system that specializes in the
control of voluntary movements and the communication of
information to and from the sense organs

• Nerves from this system make it possible for us to sense our

environment and to move, and they are primarily under conscious
control
 Autonomic Nervous System
 The part of the peripheral nervous system that controls involuntary movements
of the heart, glands, lungs and other organs
› Usually functions without conscious effort

 Plays a crucial role during emergencies

 Subdivides:
1. Sympathetic Division
2. Parasympathetic Division
Sympathetic Nervous System
Fight or Flight

 This division is triggered by threatening or challenging physical or psychological

stimuli

 It increases physiological arousal and prepares the body for action

 Fight-or-flight response
 All resources are mobilized: heart rate and blood pressure increase; blood flow to skeletal
muscles, heart, and brain increase; the liver releases glucose; and the pupils dilate
 Activity in the gastrointestinal tract and blood flow to the skin are decreased
Parasympathetic Nervous System
Rest & Digest

• This division returns the body to a calmer, relaxed state and is

involved in digestion

• Lowers activity, operates during normal situations, permits digestion,

and conservation of energy.
The Endocrine System
Endocrine System
• The endocrine system is made up of glands that secrete chemicals
directly into the bloodstream of lymph system
• These chemicals are called hormones, and are carried throughout the body,
where they affect both internal activities and visible behaviour
• To respond, the cells must have receptor sites for the hormone
The Pituitary Gland
• Controlled by the hypothalamus
• Considered to be the “master gland”
• Releases the hormones that activate the other glands in the endocrine
system

• Produces the hormone that is responsible for body growth

Thyroid Gland
• Produces the important hormone thyroxine, which regulates the rate
at which food is metabolized

• Hyperthyroidism
• Hypothyroidism
The Adrenal Glands
• Produce epinephrine and norepinephrine, two hormones that
activate the sympathetic nervous system

• Release the corticoids, which control the body’s salt balance

• Also release small amounts of the sex hormones

The Pancreas
• Regulates the body’s blood sugar levels by releasing the hormone’s
insulin and glucagon into the bloodstream
The Sex Glands
• The Gonads
• Ovaries in females and testes in males
• Females  estrogen and progesterone
• Males  androgens

• Release sex hormones that make reproduction possible and that are
responsible for the secondary sex characteristics