Introduction to Sociology

Socialisation
What is Socialisation?

Sociologists, in general, are interested in the patterns of behavior and attitudes that emerge throughout the life
course, from infancy to old age. These patterns are part of the lifelong process of socialization, in which people
learn the attitudes, values, and behaviors appropriate for members of a particular culture.

Socialization occurs through human interactions that begin in infancy and continue through retirement.

From a micro sociological perspective, socialization helps us to discover how to behave “properly” and what to
expect from others if we follow (or challenge) society’s norms and values.

Socialization also shapes our self-images. socialization experiences can help to shape our personalities.
Self and Socialistion

We all think and feel differently about who we are and what kind of people we are.

How do these ideas form? and

Do they change as we get older?

According to George Herbert Mead, our sense of self comes from talking and interacting with other people.
This idea of "who we are" is unique to each of us and keeps changing throughout our life.

Both sociologists and psychologists are interested in how we build and change our sense of self through talking
and spending time with others.
Chalres Horton Cooley - Looking-Glass Self

In the early 1900s, Charles Horton Cooley introduced the concept of the "looking-glass self," which explains
how we develop our self-identity through interactions with others.

The process of developing a self-identity or self-concept has three phases. First, we imagine how we
present ourselves to others—to relatives, friends, even strangers on the street. Then we imagine how
others evaluate us (attractive, intelligent, shy, or strange). Finally, we develop some sort of feeling about
ourselves, such as respect or shame, as a result of these impressions (Cooley 1902; Michael C. Howard
1989).

Cooley's "looking-glass self" idea says that we form our self-view based on what we think others think of us.

Sometimes we get it wrong. Like, if a teacher criticizes a student, she/he might wrongly think she/he is not
smart. But how one see oneself can change over time, like if they get good grades later, it will change the
previous perception.
Mead: Stages of the Self

George Mead is most renowned for his theory on the development of the self, which he articulated in his 1964
work. Mead (1934, 1964a) developed a useful model of the process by which the self emerges, defined by three
distinct stages: the preparatory stage, the play stage, and the game stage

Preparatory Stage
Children imitate those around them, often their family. It's their first form of social interaction and lays the
foundation for understanding symbols and language.

Play Stage
Children pretend to be other people (like a doctor, superhero, etc.) It helps them understand social roles and
perspectives other than their own.

Game Stage
By age 8 or 9, children think about multiple roles and social rules simultaneously. They begin to understand
society's expectations and their own place in social interactions.

Generalised other - Mead's concept of the "generalized other" describes how a child internalizes the collective
opinions, norms, and expectations of society to guide their actions. In essence, the idea is that when a person acts,
they are considering the perspectives of a broader community. For instance, a child doesn't simply behave politely
to satisfy one parent; instead, the child recognizes that politeness is a universally valued social principle, upheld not
just by their parents, but also by teachers and religious figures.
Mead: Theory of the Self

In Mead's view, individuals start their lives with themselves at the core of their own universe.

In early childhood, for instance, kids often perceive themselves as the central figures around whom everything
else revolves. This is evident when children are unable to see situations from other perspectives. For instance,
when shown a picture of a mountain landscape and asked what someone on the other side might see, children
typically describe only what is visible from their own point of view.

This egocentric perspective doesn't fully vanish as people age. The tendency to place oneself at the center of
events persists into adulthood. For example, individuals who are afraid of flying may think that any doomed
flight would certainly be the one they are aboard. Similarly, many people read horoscopes primarily to find
their own, or buy lottery tickets thinking of their own victory.

As individuals grow older, the conception of the self evolves to incorporate a growing awareness of how others
perceive them. The opinions and expectations of family, friends, colleagues, mentors, and educators
significantly contribute to the molding of one's self-image. Mead refers to these influential figures as
"significant others," highlighting their crucial role in the maturation of the self.
Goffman: Presentation of the Self

Erving Goffman explored how we curate and present our "self" to the world around us.

According to Goffman, much of our daily life is devoted to managing how others perceive us, providing
insight into the nuanced and pivotal ways we learn to navigate social settings. Through his observations,
Goffman provides tangible examples that illuminate how we go through the socialization process.

From an early age, we become skilled in adjusting how we present ourselves to meet specific
expectations and to appeal to different groups of people. Coined by Goffman in 1959 as "impression
management," this concept is exemplified by situations like how students react upon receiving their
exam results.

In breaking down routine social exchanges, Goffman employs numerous theatrical analogies, leading his
perspective to be dubbed the "dramaturgical approach.” In this framework, individuals are likened to
actors playing roles. For instance, a store clerk might act busier when under the gaze of a supervisor, or a
patron at a singles' bar might pose as if awaiting someone specific.
Goffman: Presentation of the Self

Another key term introduced by Goffman is "face-work," referring to the behaviors we adopt to salvage our
self-image, particularly in uncomfortable situations. If a person feels snubbed at a bar, they might claim that
no one interesting is present, all in an effort to maintain their social face.

This concept of face-work becomes even more essential during challenging economic times, such as
recessions, when unemployment rates are high. An ethnographic study by Garrett-Peters in 2009 found that
the newly unemployed were reframing their jobless status by focusing on accomplishments, like volunteering,
in order to manage both their self-impression and public image.

Goffman emphasized that the creation and presentation of the "self" are complex processes shaped through
social interactions. People continually alter their appearances, attitudes, and actions to manage impressions,
a phenomenon Goffman astutely labelled as "impression management."
Psychological Approaches to the Self

Psychologists like Sigmund Freud and Jean Piaget have studied how our sense of "self" develops. Freud said that
our behavior is influenced by natural drives, like the drive for pleasure, but also by social rules we learn from our
parents and society. He thought we're often torn between wanting to do what feels good and what we know is
right.

Piaget focused on how children develop a sense of self as they grow. He said children go through four stages:

Sensorimotor: Babies explore using their senses.

Preoperational: Young kids use words and pictures to understand things.
Concrete Operational: Older kids start to think logically.
Formal Operational: Teenagers can think abstractly and reason well.

Both Freud and Piaget agree that interacting with other people is crucial for developing a sense of who we are.
Theoretical Approaches to the Development of the Self
Agents of Socialisation

The continuing and lifelong socialization process involves many different social forces that influence our lives and alter our self-
images. Different agents play various roles, and they are generally categorized into primary and secondary agents of socialization.

Family

The family is widely considered the primary agent of socialization, especially for young children.
Family members playing a critical role in a child's social development. New-borns use their senses to adapt to their environment,
relying on family for basic care and emotional support. Socialization methods vary across cultures; for example, the Amish
community has a distinct approach that includes a tolerance for a period of youthful rebellion.

In the United States, social development is also shaped by cultural views on gender and race. Research shows that Black children
are exposed to negative stereotypes from an early age, due to the lack of diverse representation in children's media. Even middle-
class Black families, due to geographic proximity to impoverished areas, may face exposure to inner-city gang culture.

The concept of "gender role" outlines societal expectations for male and female behavior. These roles, however, are not rigid or
biologically determined; they are shaped by various agents including parents, media, and educational institutions. For instance,
some cultures designate specific roles for mothers and fathers in child-rearing, which can limit the skill sets learned by children of
both genders. In South Asia, this gender-specific socialization had dire consequences when a tsunami struck in 2004; men were
more likely to survive as they were taught to swim, unlike women.
Agents of Socialisation

School

Schools serve a critical role in socializing children into the cultural norms and values of society. According to conflict theorists
Samuel Bowles and Herbert Gintis, schools also instill a sense of competition through systems like grading and teacher
evaluations. This competitive structure can sometimes make struggling students feel inadequate.

While functionalists argue that schools educate children in the values of the broader community, conflict theorists note that
schools can also perpetuate societal inequalities, particularly along class lines. For example, the high cost of higher education
creates an advantage for affluent students, limiting opportunities for those from less wealthy backgrounds.

Peer Group

As children age, their family's influence on their social development tends to decrease, while the importance of peer groups
grows. These groups are made up of individuals of similar age and often similar social standing. The significance of peer
groups is evident when disrupted by external factors like war or natural disasters. For instance, Fatmeh, a Syrian teenager,
lost her regular social structure due to the Syrian civil war and is now isolated in Lebanon, with a cell phone as her only link
to her previous life.

Gender also plays a role in social development among adolescents. Both genders are influenced by their parents, peers, and
media, but the criteria for achieving popularity differ. College students' surveys revealed that while risky behaviors like drug
and alcohol use were not top factors for popularity for either gender, they were more frequently mentioned by men than
women.
Agents of Socialisation

Mass Media and Technology

Over the past century, advancements in media and technology have become significant agents for socialization. Currently,
much of the socialization for young people is now happening online, a trend that begins at increasingly younger ages.

While there are concerns about the potential negative impact of media, it also has positive aspects. Media exposes
individuals to different lifestyles and cultures, thereby widening their understanding of the world. This is not only relevant
in developed nations but also in developing regions like Africa, where communications technologies have become crucial
for daily life. For example, the accessibility of cell phones has significantly reduced the barriers to communication, even in
low-income nations.

There is an inequality in the availability of new communications technologies, particularly broadband internet, in
developing countries. The cost of broadband is relatively much higher in these nations compared to industrialized
countries, posing challenges to universal access.
Agents of Socialistion
Workplace

Acquiring appropriate workplace behavior is integral to human socialization. In the past, work typically followed formal
education, but this has changed, especially in the United States. More youths work today, not just for family, seeking income
rather than vocational exploration. Some believe work influences socialization almost as much as school, affecting academic
performance.

Transitioning from part-time to full-time employment intensifies occupational socialization, which persists throughout one's
career due to technological shifts and job changes. Contemporary US college students anticipate multiple job changes,
supported by data indicating about 12 jobs for the average person between 18 and 48, with significant turnover from 18 to
24, regardless of gender or education level.

Religion, Government, and Socialization

Religion and government play crucial roles in shaping socialization due to their impact on individuals' life paths. While family
historically served as primary caregivers, the 20th century shifted this role to external institutions like hospitals and child care
centers. Religious groups and government bodies often operate these institutions.

Both religion and government reintroduce rites of passage from earlier societies. Religious organizations uphold traditional
rituals that unite extended families, even when they rarely interact otherwise. Government, on the other hand, establishes
age-related regulations for various activities like driving, voting, and retiring. Despite these regulations, many decisions
remain independent of strict governmental influence.
Types of Socialization

Primary Socialization: Early childhood learning, often within the family.

Secondary Socialization: Secondary socialization refers to the process of learning what is the appropriate
behavior as a member of a smaller group within the larger society. Takes place outside the home (e.g., school,
work).

Anticipatory Socialization: Preparation for future roles (e.g., career, parenthood).

Resocialization: Unlearning old behaviors and adopting new ones, often happens in total institutions like the
military.
Socialisation and the Life Course

What is the Life Course?

The life course is the stages people go through from birth to death, such as childhood, adolescence,
adulthood, and old age.

Life Course Events: Starting school, graduating, getting married, retiring.

and there are moments that trigger significant change, like the loss of a job or the birth of a child.

Socialization proceeds throughout the life course. Some societies mark stages of development with formal rites
of passage. In the culture of the United States, significant events such as the end of formal schooling serve to
change a person’s status.

Experience things in different way at different points in the life course.