JAPANESE KAIZEN AND ITS APPLICATION IN

EDUCATION

Group B

University of The People

EDUC 5010 - Education in Context: History, Philosophy, and Sociology
Dr. Nick Sanders

October, 2021
 Group Members

Name Country of residence Teaching Status

Trang Tran Vietnam English teacher
Christian Muhawenimana Rwanda Rwanda Country Head of Education, The
Pharo Foundation
Tan Nguyen Vietnam Academic manager and ESL Teacher

Edmar Talnag The Philippines English Teacher/ Freelance Lecturer and

LET Reviewer
INTRODUCTION
 Introduction

● Kaizen is Japanese philosophy that means

‘constant improvement’

● The philosophy is aligned with the pragmatist

approach
○ Pragmatism says that there is no absolute good, but

there can be something ‘better’.

○ It is never possible to achieve the state of ‘absolute

good’

○ Constant improvement is required to do better all the

Source: (Kanbanchi, 2015)
time
 Introduction (Continued)

● Kai = change

● Zen= good
○ Kai + zen = change for the better (Kanbanchi, 2015)

○ Primarily applied in manufacturing, the philosophy can be applied to other fields as

well: military, religion, education, etc.

 Principles of Kaizen as they apply to Education in Japan

● Kai = change

● Zen= good
○ Its application in improving Japanese education/teaching [1]

○ To what extent has Kaizen information educational reforms in Japan?

○ Kaizen has driven towards major reforms in Japan [2]

○ Reforms in the Japanese education touched on contents, teachers, facilities, school management system, education

administration system and fundamental laws

○ This shows how the ideals of quality and continuous improvements are embedded in the Japanese education systems.
 Principles of Kaizen as they apply to Education in Japan

Major reforms in Japan education system (1990 - 2020) [3]

● Reform from rote memorization to critical thinking and problem solving

● Reform that introduced the national academic ability test [4]

● Reform to improve teacher training

● Reform of university entrance examination

● Reform of school management system

MAJOR PHILOSOPHERS IN JAPANESE EDUCATION
 Major Philosophers of Japanese Education

● The philosophy of education in Japan is very much informed by the events of

the World War I and II

● That is why the philosophy of education in Japan after WWII focused on:

○ Perfection of personality of human being

○ Establish right human relations

○ Create a cultural nation[5]

 Major Philosophers of Japanese Education (Continued)

Major Japanese philosophers of the twentieth century include[6]:

● Nishida Kitaro (1870-1945)

● Suzuki Daisetsu (1870-1966)[7]

 Major Philosophers of Japanese Education (Continued)

● Tanabe Hajime (1885-1962)[8]

● Watsjui Tetsuro (1889-1960)[9]

● Miki Kiyoshi (1897-1945

● Nishitani Keiji (1900-1990)

THE HISTORY OF EDUCATION IN JAPAN
 The History of Education in Japan: Intro

● Formal education in Japan started circa 6th century.

● The courts of Asuka, Nara, and Heian were the notable schools where the

following courses were covered:

○ Sciences

○ Calligraphy

○ Divination

○ Literature
 The History of Education in Japan: Intro

● To own an academic title, one had to sit for an exam prepared by the Imperial

Examination Board to become a scholar official

● The military class, bushi, abolished scholar officials title but Buddhist

monasteries remained influential learning centers

 The History of Education in Japan: Major Timelines

6th century Kamakura period: Edo period: 1603- Meiji Restoration: Post WWII
1192 to 1333 1867 1868 1947-

Start formal End of the Prominence of Adoption of Education reform

education influence of Tokugawa structures of was made a
Scholar training school for Western priority[12]
Officials shogunate learning[11]
bureaucrats[10]
HISTORICAL, POLITICAL, AND SOCIAL FORCES AND THEIR IMPACTS
 Overview: Four Forces and Their Impacts

● Japan’s Lost Decades lead to education reform (2002) and its reversal (2011)

● Japan’s hidden neo-liberal agenda leads to shifting accountability in education, resulting in more

inequality and stress.

● Japan’s post WW2’s identity politics leads to top-down discriminatory policies toward Zainichi

Koreans in Japan.

● Japan’s hostile regional geopolitics lead to discriminatory experience for Zainichi Korean

students.
 1. Japan’s Lost Decades (1990-present)

● Economic underperformance & lack of effective policy,

● Population aging & shifting age structure,

● Political & social institutions failing to adapt (Aoki, 2013, p. 103).[13]

 Impact: 2002 Education Reform

● based on ikiru chikara (zest for living)

● seeks to “rebuild bonds between people” [14] and

● “reconstruct communities affected by the economic slowdown” (Kitami, 2019,

p. 4).
 Impact: Education Reform Mixed Results

● Math and Japanese language test score declined (Kitami, 2009, p. 5).

● More lower-achievers and disadvantaged students falling behind or dropping

out, resulting in increasing inequality in education (Hannum et al., 2010, p. 8).

 Impact: Reform Reversal in 2011

● Increasing hours, class periods, standardized testing for elementary and middle

school (Kitami, 2009, p. 5),

● Implementation of new national tests for 6th and 9th grade due to Japan’s

anxiety about “being overtaken in education accomplishment by the Koreans

and Chinese” (OECD, 2010, p. 146).

 Impact: 2002 Reform & 2011 Reversal Effects through PISA Scores

● After 2000: score

falling
● 2006-2012: score
raising
● 2012: score falling
again
(Statista, 2021)
 2. Hidden Neo-liberal Agenda [15]

● Reduced government’s financial obligations to schools based on reduced hours

(Kitami, 2019, p. 6)

● Privatization of knowledge production aimed toward test score achievement (Kitami,

2019, p. 7).

● In 2003, the National University Corporation Law turned all Japanese national

universities into corporations (Nuffic, 2020).

 Impact: Shifting Accountability

● Up to 2010, Japan’s education has observed high equity thanks to shared

accountability between student, family, teacher, school, the government, and the

society (OECD, 2010, p. 146).

● Recently, the responsibility for education shifts toward students and families

rather than the Ministry of Education (Wada & Bernett, 2011, as cited by

Kitami, 2019).
 Impact: Inequality & Stress

● Only rich families can afford private cram school (Kitami, 2019, p. 7).

● Disadvantages youths have less incentive, lack basic skills, and have fewer stable

employment opportunities (Hannum et al., 2010, p. 8).

● Privatization of knowledge and increased emphasis on test scores leave students

stressed and overwhelmed (Kitami, 2019, p. 7).

 3. Post WWII Identity Politics: “The Myth of Monoethnic Japan”

● A nationalist ideology included conquered peoples (Koreans, Okinawans, and

Taiwanese) in a “reunited Japanese empire”;

● An “overbearing denial of a multiethnic Japan” in mainstream culture;

● “State bureaucracies [continue] to be exclusionary against cultural Japanese without state

citizenship” (Lie, 2001, as cited in Yamada & Yusa, 2014).

 Impact: Top-down Discriminatory, Assimilatory Policies

● In 2010, Korean schools were excluded from the tuition waiver; in 2013, removed from its

official classification (Grant, 2020b).

● In 2019, new free childcare pre-school programme excluded 80 foreign kindergartens, almost

half of them Korean (Grant, 2020b).

● 51% of foreign-born high school students are enrolled, as compared with nearly 97% of

non-foreign born, Japanese (Sakuma, 2006 as cited in Hannum et al., p. 6)

 4. Hostile Regional Geopolitics with North and South Korea

● Japan’s colonization of the Korean Peninsula 1910-1940 (Yamada & Yusa,

2014)

● North Korea’s revival of nuclear testing (Grant, 2020b)

● Antagonism over the abduction of Japanese nationals by North Korean agents

(Johnston, 2020)
 Impact: Discriminatory Experiences for Zainichi Koreans

A survey of 1,030 students (“‘There is no discrimination in Japan,” 2021 ) shows

● 75.7% saying that they had seen or heard hate demonstrations or speeches[16]

● 30.9% said they had been verbally harassed for reasons including being Zainichi

Korean.

● 48.1% of those involved being harassed by classmates and other students.

● 10.1% said that Japanese teachers at school had been the perpetrators.
SOCIAL ISSUES THAT TODAY’S JAPAN IS FACED WITH
 4 Social Issues Facing Japanese Education Today

1. Education does not promote creativity.

2. Lack of freedom for students.

3. Bullying

4. Collapse of Homeroom Classroom Chaos

 1. Inhibiting Student Creativity

The main cause of preventing student creativity is the regulation of university

entrance examination criteria and results of this exam decides whether students can enter

university, describing “This leads to an over-emphasis on memorization in the high school

curriculum” (Yasko, n.d.).

 1. Inhibiting Student Creativity

“By removing all of these other important activities, the Japanese educational
system prevents students from developing creativity” (Yasko, n.d.)

Example: class discussions, presentations help students improve their public

speaking skills and experiments arouse students’ curiosity in science through their own
observation and analysis.
 2. Lack of Freedom for Students

Students in high school have hardly any free time to balance their life due to the following two

reasons:

● They have the high workload of assignments and examinations in high schools.

● They have to attend private schools (juku) or “ cram schools” and come home late since

the class size is big and teacher has no time to take good care of each individual.
 2. Lack of Freedom for Students

Example: high school students have at least one exam every week, so they spend their weeks

off and even Summer holidays attending the supplementary classes, describing “In fact, 60% of

Japanese high school students attended juku in 1993 (“The Japanese Education”). It is common for

students to come home around 10 p.m. when they attend juku.” (Yasko, n.d.)
 3. Bullying

● Ijime, ( いじめ / 苛め ), this is the name given to Japanese Bullying.

● Namely, students should follow the same customs and rules as the majority of students do.

If anyone who acts differently is the main target of ijime. Cases of ijime occur in Japanese

schools not only with students but also with teachers.

 4. Collapse of Homeroom Classroom Chaos

“Gakkyu hokai,” also referred to as classroom disintegration or classroom chaos, is a term that

has come into vogue to express a teacher’s complete loss of control of the classroom environment,

describing “a situation in which students ignore their teacher and act up, walkout, run amok, speak out

of turn or even destroy supplies (Mathis, 2007).

STATUS OF EDUCATION IN JAPAN ACCORDING TO SOME INTERNATIONAL METRICS
 Japanese Education in International Rankings

● 2nd most educated country in the world (U.S. Global Investors), with 50.50% of

the population are educated adults.[17]

● 7th best countries for education (US News)[18]

● 24th in UNESCO’s Education Index 2018[19]

 Japan’s PISA Performance Trends 2000-2018[20]

● Add text here

● Add text here

○ Add text here

○ Add text here

○ Add text here

○ Add text here

Equity: Impact of Socio-economic Background on PISA Reading [21]
Equity: “Resilient Students” [22]
 Gender Equality in Japanese Education[23]

0=inequality
1=equality
SUGGESTIONS TO RESOLVE SOCIAL ISSUES THAT TODAY’S JAPAN IS FACED WITH
 Suggested Solutions to Resolve Social Issues in Japanese Education

1. Promoting Creativity

2. Giving More Freedom to Students

3. Anti-discrimination Measures

4. Anti-bullying Measures

5. Response to Collapse of Classroom Order

 1. Promoting Creativity in Students

Yutori Education - relaxed or room to grow [24]

● emphasized giving children freedom to develop individuality and creativity and

to enjoy study and play (Smith, 2018);

● the policy involved the introduction of integrated studies, the expansion of

electives, and the encouragement of “zest for living” (ikiru chikara) and
innovative pedagogy [25]
 1. Promoting Creativity in Students

2006 Basic Law on Education and the Basic Plans

● It emphasized the connection between individuality and creativity as well as the

strengthening of Japanese cultural identity and loyalty (Smith, 2018);
● MEXT [26] (2006) aims at developing individuals’ abilities, cultivating creativity, and
fostering a spirit of autonomy and independence by respecting the value of the individual,
as well as emphasizing the relationship between one’s career and one’s everyday life and
fostering the value of respect for hard work.
 2. Giving Freedom to Students

Free School Movement [27]

● They’re alternative schools that operate on principles of freedom and individuality;
● Schools don’t usually don’t impose a fixed schedule and put the emphasis on the personal
choices of students, who get to decide what to study and other activities they want to
engage in (Aoki, 2012);
● The exact curriculum and focus depends on the institution, but free schools generally focus
on allowing students to learn in their own way in a safe environment [28]
 2. Giving Freedom to Students

The Constitution of Japan, Chapter III

● It is guaranteed that students have the freedom of religion, assembly, association,

expression and private communication (Bennett, n.d.).

Reforms in 2020s

● National Curriculum Standards to specify “what students will be able to do and how can

they learn [29]

 3. Anti-discrimination Measures

Anti-Discrimination Education

● this movement had made much effort in empowering and supporting Buraku [30] students by

developing such systems as literacy education;

● this education movement also carried out enlightenment education for the majority

population (Nojima, 2009).

 4. Anti-bullying Measures

The 2013 Ijime (bullying) prevention methods promotion law [31]

● the law requires teachers and officials to detect and stop bullying in its early stages
● aims to prevent the re-occurrence of the structural problems
● it places responsibility for bullying on the national and local authorities and schools;
● requires regular investigation at schools (usually in the form of questionnaires to students)
to identify cases;
● requires teachers to report those to the school;
● requires a dedicated system for gathering information on suspected ijime and reporting of
that to the local board of education (Kawano, 2021).
 5. Possible Solutions[32] to “Collapse of Homeroom Classroom Chaos”

● Providing professional development for teachers;

● Increasing parent-teacher support;

● Hiring more official trained guidance counselors;

● Getting administrators more involved

● Decreasing class size and/or school size

● Establishing and enforcing reasonable school and classroom rules

 References

Ahmed, H. U., & Ferdausi, M. (2018, December 7). Meet 20th century Japanese philosophers. The Financial Express. Retrieved

October 6, 2021, from https://thefinancialexpress.com.bd/views/meet-20th-century-japanese-philosophers-1544187585

Aoki, M. (2012, August 18). Free schools a haven for kids who can't fit in. The Japan Times.

https://www.japantimes.co.jp/news/2012/08/18/national/free-schools-a-haven-for-kids-who-cant-fit-in/

Aoki, R. (2013). A demographic perspective on Japan’s “lost decades.” Population and Development Review, 38, 103–112.

http://www.jstor.org/stable/23655289

Bennett, L. (n.d.). Expectations for Japanese Children. http://www.socialstudies.org/sites/default/files/publications/yl/1003/100306.html

 References

Cerantola, A. (2019, December 23). Why so many Japanese children refuse to go to school. BBC News. Retrieved October 20, 2021,
from https://www.bbc.com/news/world-asia-50693777

Glavin, C. (2017, February 6). History of education in Japan. History of Education in Japan | K12 Academics. Retrieved October 20,
2021, from https://www.k12academics.com/Education%20Worldwide/Education%20in%20Japan/history-education-japan-0

Education index by country. (n.d.). Rankedex. Retrieved October 20, 2021, from https://rankedex.com/society-rankings/education-index

Engelmann, J. (2021, April 16). Japan: Gender gap index by category 2021. Statista.
https://www.statista.com/statistics/1227332/japan-gender-gap-index-by-category/
 References (Cont’d)

Explore more efforts to stop school bullying (2019, July 19). Japan Times. Retrieved October 20, 2021, from
https://www.japantimes.co.jp/opinion/2019/07/19/editorials/explore-efforts-stop-school-bullying/

Grant, P. (2020a). Foreigners in their own country: The plight of ethnic Koreans. In Japan’s Minorities and Indigenous Peoples: A
History of Denial. Minority Rights Group International. Retrieved October 20, 2021, from
https://stories.minorityrights.org/japan/chapter/foreigners-in-their-own-country-the-plight-of-ethnic-koreans/

Grant, P. (2020b). The challenges of Korean education in Japan. In Japan’s Minorities and Indigenous Peoples: A History of Denial.
Minority Rights Group International. Retrieved October 20, 2021, from
https://stories.minorityrights.org/japan/chapter/the-challenges-of-korean-education-in-japan
 References (Cont’d)

Hannum, E., Park, H., & Butler, Y. G. (Eds.). (2010). Introduction: Emerging issues for educational research in East Asia (pg 1-14) In
Globalization, changing demographics, and educational challenges in East Asia. Retrieved from Ebook Central: Academic
Complete.

Japan's hidden caste of untouchables. (2015, October 23). BBC News. Retrieved October 20, 2021, from
https://www.bbc.com/news/world-asia-34615972

Johnston, E. (2020, June 11). The North Korean abduction issue in Japan: When will the waiting end? The Japan Times. Retrieved
October 20, 2021, from https://www.japantimes.co.jp/news/2020/06/11/national/japan-north-korean-abduction-issue/

Kanbanchi. (2015, May 28). What is Kaizen? Kanbanchi. Retrieved October 6, 2021, from https://www.kanbanchi.com/what-is-kaizen
 References (Cont’d)

Kawano, K. (2021, May 07). Bullying in Japanese Schools: Modern Bullying Attacks Not Just the Odd Ones Out. Savvy Tokyo.
Retrieved October 20, 2021, from https://savvytokyo.com/bullying-japanese-schools/

Kitami, Y. (2019). The influence of philosophy for children on Japanese secondary school students’ emotional learning [PhD Thesis]. In
scholarspace.manoa.hawaii.edu. Retrieved October 20, 2021, from https://scholarspace.manoa.hawaii.edu/handle/10125/66207

Leonardo De Paula. (n.d). Ijime - Bullying in Schools in Japan. Retrieved October 20, 2021, from
https://skdesu.com/en/ijime-bullyng-no-japao/

Lezott, C. (2020, May 03). Free schools as a solution to school truancy in Japan. Zenbird. Retrieved October 20, 2021, from
https://zenbird.media/free-schools-as-a-solution-to-school-truancy-in-japan/

MEXT (2006). Basic act on education. Retrieved October 20, 2021, from https://www.mext.go.jp/en/policy/education/
 References (Cont’d)

Nojima, D. (2009). Anti-discrimination Education in Japan: Buraku Sabetsu Simulation. Retrieved October 20, 2021, from
https://www.hurights.or.jp/archives/asia-pacific/section1/pdf_1/Anti-discrimination.pdf

Nuffic. (2020). The education system of Japan described and compared with the Dutch system. Retrieved October 20, 2021, from
https://www.nuffic.nl/sites/default/files/2020-08/education-system-japan.pdf

OECD. (2010). Japan: A story of sustained excellence. In Strong Performers and Successful Reformers in Education: Lessons from
PISA for the United States. Oecd. Retrieved October 20, 2021, from https://www.oecd.org/japan/46581091.pdf

OECD. (2012). How pronounced is income inequality around the world - and how can education help reduce it?. OECD Library.

Retrieved October 6, 2021, from https://doi.org/10.1787/5k97krntvqtf-en

 References (Cont’d)

OECD. (2019). Japan - Country note - PISA 2018 results. In OECD.org. Retrieved October 6, 2021, from
https://www.oecd.org/pisa/publications/PISA2018_CN_JPN.pdf

Saito, T. (n.d.). Philosophy of Education in Japan. yumpu.com. Retrieved October 6, 2021, from
https://www.yumpu.com/en/document/view/32057715/philosophy-of-education-in-japan

Sapungan, R. M., & Cuarteros, J. (2016). Improving Teaching and Learning through Kaizen and 7 th Habit. International Journal
Advances in Social Science and Humanities, 4(1), 1–7School problems in Japan: Injuries by teachers, violence and a lack of
discipline. (n.d.). Retrieved October 6, 2021, from https://factsanddetails.com/japan/cat23/sub150/item829.html

Smith, C. A. (2018 January). “Creativity” in Japanese education policy. Retrieved October 6, 2021, from
https://jalt-publications.org/sites/default/files/pdf-article/jalt2017-pcp-002.pdf
 References (Cont’d)

Statista Research Department. (2020, December 10). Mean PISA score of students in Japan 2000-2018, by subject. Statista. Retrieved

October 6, 2021, from https://www.statista.com/statistics/1192811/japan-pisa-score-by-subject/

The problems in Japan. (n.d). Retrieved October 6, 2021, from

https://www.myjapanphone.com/japan_travel_resource/Studying_in_japan/The_problem_in_Japanese_education.html

“There is no discrimination in Japan”: Survey results show statement is far from true. (2021, February 20). Mainichi Daily News.

Retrieved October 6, 2021, from https://mainichi.jp/english/articles/20210220/p2a/00m/0na/015000c

 References (Cont’d)

Yamada, A., & Yusa, T. (2014). Ethnic microaggressions: The experiences of Zainichi Korean students in Japan. InterActions: UCLA

Journal of Education and Information Studies, 10(2). Retrieved October 6, 2021, from https://doi.org/10.5070/d4102017632

U.S. Global Investors. (2021). Here are the 10 most educated countries in the world. Www.usfunds.com.
https://www.usfunds.com/slideshows/here-are-the-10-most-educated-countries-in-the-world/

U.S. News. (2021). The 2021 best countries for education. USNews. Retrieved October 6, 2021, from
https://www.usnews.com/news/best-countries/best-countries-for-education

Yamanaka S., Suzuki K.H. (2020) Japanese Education Reform Towards Twenty-First Century Education. In: Reimers F. (eds) Audacious
Education Purposes: How Governments Transform the Goals of Education Systems (81-104). Springer, Cham. Retrieved
October 6, 2021, from https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-41882-3_4
 References (Cont’d)

Yasko Ishimaru. (n.d). Japanese Educational System Problems. Retrieved October 6, 2021, from
http://jhu.sites.tru.ca/files/2019/03/Japanese-Educational-System-Problems.pdf