Lecture 3:Databases

Organizing Data and Information

 Principles and Learning Objectives
• Data management and modeling are key aspects
of organizing data and information
– Define general data management concepts and
terms, highlighting the advantages of the database
approach to data management
– Describe the relational database model and outline
its basic features

Fundamentals of Information Systems, Fourth Edition 2

 Principles and Learning Objectives
(continued)
• A well-designed and well-managed database is an
extremely valuable tool in supporting decision
making
– Identify the common functions performed by all
database management systems and identify popular
user database management systems

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 Principles and Learning Objectives
(continued)
• The number and types of database applications will
continue to evolve and yield real business benefits
– Identify and briefly discuss current database
applications

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Why Learn About Database Systems?
• Database systems process and organize large
amounts of data
• Examples
– Marketing manager can access customer data
– Corporate lawyer can access past cases and
opinions

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 Introduction
• Database: an organized collection of data
• Database management system (DBMS): group of
programs to manage database
– Manipulates database
– Provides an interface between database and the
user of the database and other application programs
• Database administrator (DBA): skilled IS
professional who directs all activities related to an
organization’s database

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 Data Management
• Without data and the ability to process it, an
organization could not successfully complete most
business activities
• Data consists of raw facts
• For data to be transformed into useful information,
it must first be organized in a meaningful way

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 The Hierarchy of Data
• Bit (a binary digit): a circuit that is either on or off
• Byte: eight bits
• Character: basic building block of information
– Each byte represents a character
– Can be an uppercase letter, lowercase letter,
numeric digit, or special symbol
• Field: typically a name, number, or combination of
characters that describes an aspect of a business
object or activity

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 The Hierarchy of Data (continued)
• Record: a collection of related data fields
• File: a collection of related records
• Database: a collection of integrated and related
files
• Hierarchy of data: bits, characters, fields, records,
files, and databases

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 The Hierarchy of Data (continued)

Figure 3.1: The Hierarchy of Data

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 Data Entities, Attributes, and Keys
• Entity: a generalized class of people, places, or
things (objects) for which data is collected, stored,
and maintained
• Attribute: characteristic of an entity
• Data item: value of an attribute
• Key: field or set of fields in a record that is used to
identify the record
• Primary key: field or set of fields that uniquely
identifies the record

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 Data Entities, Attributes, and Keys
(continued)

Figure 3.2: Keys and Attributes

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 The Database Approach

• Traditional approach to database management:

separate data files are created for each application
– Results in data redundancy (duplication)
– Data redundancy conflicts with data integrity
• Database approach to database management: pool
of related data is shared by multiple applications
– Significant advantages over traditional approach

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 The Database Approach (continued)

Figure 3.3: The Database Approach to Data Management

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 The Database Approach (continued)

Table 3.1: Advantages of the Database Approach

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 The Database Approach (continued)

Table 3.1: Advantages of the Database Approach (continued)

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 The Database Approach (continued)

Table 3.2: Disadvantages of the Database Approach

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 Data Modeling and the Relational
Database Model
• When building a database, consider:
– Content: What data should be collected, at what
cost?
– Access: What data should be provided to which
users and when?
– Logical structure: How should data be arranged to
make sense to a given user?
– Physical organization: Where should data be
physically located?

Fundamentals of Information Systems, Fourth Edition 18

 Data Modeling
• Building a database requires two types of designs
– Logical design
• Abstract model of how data should be structured and
arranged to meet an organization’s information needs
– Physical design
• Fine-tunes the logical database design for
performance and cost considerations

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 Data Modeling (continued)
• Data model: a diagram of data entities and their
relationships
• Entity-relationship (ER) diagrams: data models
that use basic graphical symbols to show the
organization of and relationships between data

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 Data Modeling (continued)

Figure 3.4: An Entity-Relationship (ER) Diagram for a Customer Order Database

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 The Relational Database Model
• Relational model: all data elements are placed in
two-dimensional tables (relations), which are the
logical equivalent of files
• In the relational model
– Each row of a table represents a data entity
– Columns of the table represent attributes
– Domain: the allowable values for data attributes

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 The Relational Database Model
(continued)

Figure 3.5: A Relational Database Model

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 Manipulating Data
• Selecting: eliminates rows according to criteria
• Projecting: eliminates columns in a table
• Joining: combines two or more tables
• Linking: relates or links two or more tables using
common data attributes

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 Manipulating Data (continued)

Figure 3.6: A Simplified ER Diagram Showing the Relationship Between

the Manager, Department, and Project Tables
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 Manipulating Data (continued)

Figure 3.7: Linking Data Tables to Answer an Inquiry

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 Database Management Systems
(DBMS)
• Interface between:
– Database and application programs
– Database and the user
• Creating and implementing the right database
system ensures that the database will support both
business activities and goals
• DBMS: a group of programs used as an interface
between a database and application programs or a
database and the user

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 Overview of Database Types
• Flat file
– Simple database program whose records have no
relationship to one another
• Single user
– Only one person can use the database at a time
– Examples: Access, FileMaker, and InfoPath
• Multiple user
– Allows dozens or hundreds of people to access the
same database system at the same time
– Examples: Oracle, Sybase, and IBM
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 Providing a User View
• Schema: description of the entire database
• Large database systems typically use schemas to
define the tables and other database features
associated with a person or user

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 Creating and Modifying the Database
• Data definition language (DDL)
– Collection of instructions/commands that define and
describe data and data relationships in a database
– Allows database creator to describe the data and the
data relationships that are to be contained in the
schema
• Data dictionary: a detailed description of all the
data used in the database

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 Creating and Modifying the Database
(continued)

Figure 3.10: Using a Data Definition Language to Define a Schema

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 Creating and Modifying the Database
(continued)

Figure 3.11: A Typical Data Dictionary Entry

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 Storing and Retrieving Data
• When an application requests data from the DBMS,
the application follows a logical access path
• When the DBMS goes to a storage device to
retrieve the requested data, it follows a path to the
physical location (physical access path) where the
data is stored

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 Storing and Retrieving Data
(continued)

Figure 3.12: Logical and Physical Access Paths

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 Manipulating Data and Generating
Reports
• Query-By-Example (QBE): a visual approach to
developing database queries or requests
• Data manipulation language (DML): commands
that manipulate the data in a database
• Structured Query Language (SQL): ANSI
standard query language for relational databases
• Database programs can produce reports,
documents, and other outputs

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 Manipulating Data and Generating
Reports (continued)

Table 3.3: Examples of SQL Commands

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 Database Administration
• Database administrator (DBA): directs or performs
all activities to maintain a database environment
– Designing, implementing, and maintaining the
database system and the DBMS
– Establishing policies and procedures
– Employee training

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 Popular Database Management
Systems
• Popular DBMSs for end users: Microsoft Access
and FileMaker Pro
• Entire market includes databases by IBM, Oracle,
and Microsoft
• Examples of open-source database systems:
PostgreSQL and MySQL
• Many traditional database programs are now
available on open-source operating systems

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 Special-Purpose Database Systems
• Specialized database packages are used for
specific purposes or in specific industries
– Israeli Holocaust Database
– Hazmat database
– Art and Antique Organizer Deluxe
• Special-purpose database by Tableau can be used
to store and process visual images

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 Selecting a Database Management
System
• Important characteristics of databases to consider
– Size of the database
– Cost of the system
– Number of concurrent users
– Performance
– Ability to be integrated with other systems
– Vendor considerations

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 Using Databases with Other Software
• Database management systems are often used
with other software packages or the Internet
• A database management system can act as a
front-end application or a back-end application
– Front-end application: interacts with users
– Back-end application: interacts with applications

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 Database Applications
• Database applications manipulate content of a
database to produce useful information
• Common manipulations are searching, filtering,
synthesizing, and assimilating the data

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 Linking Databases to the Internet
• Linking databases to the Internet is important for
many organizations and people
• Semantic Web
– Developing a seamless integration of traditional
databases with the Internet
– Allows people to access and manipulate a number of
traditional databases at the same time through the
Internet

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 Data Warehouses, Data Marts, and
Data Mining
• Data warehouse: collects business information
from many sources in the enterprise
• Data mart: a subset of a data warehouse
• Data mining: an information-analysis tool for
discovering patterns and relationships in a data
warehouse or a data mart

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 Data Warehouses, Data Marts, and
Data Mining (continued)

Figure 3.17: Elements of a Data Warehouse

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 Data Warehouses, Data Marts, and
Data Mining (continued)

Table 3.5: Common Data-Mining Applications

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 Business Intelligence
• Business intelligence (BI): gathering the right
information in a timely manner and usable form and
analyzing it to have a positive impact on business
– Turns data into useful information that is then
distributed throughout an enterprise

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 Business Intelligence (continued)
• Competitive intelligence: aspect of business
intelligence limited to information about competitors
and the ways that knowledge affects strategy,
tactics, and operations
• Counterintelligence: steps an organization takes
to protect information sought by “hostile”
intelligence gatherers

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 Distributed Databases
• Distributed database
– Data may be spread across several smaller
databases connected via telecommunications
devices
– Corporations get more flexibility in how databases
are organized and used
• Replicated database
– Holds a duplicate set of frequently used data

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 Online Analytical Processing (OLAP)
• Software that allows users to explore data from a
number of different perspectives

Table 3.6: Comparison of OLAP and Data Mining

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Object-Oriented and Object-Relational
Database Management Systems
• Object-oriented database
– Stores both data and its processing instructions
– Method: a procedure or action
– Message: a request to execute or run a method

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Object-Oriented and Object-Relational
Database Management Systems
(continued)
• Object-oriented database management system
(OODBMS)
– Programs that manipulate an object-oriented
database and provide a user interface and
connections to other application programs
• Object-relational database management system
(ORDBMS)
– A DBMS capable of manipulating audio, video, and
graphical data

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 Visual, Audio, and Other Database
Systems
• Visual databases for storing images
• Audio databases for storing sound
• Virtual database systems: allow different
databases to work together as a unified database
system
• Other special-purpose database systems
– Spatial data technology: stores and accesses data
according to the locations it describes and permits
spatial queries and analysis

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 Summary
• Hierarchy of data: bits, characters, fields, records,
files, and databases
• Entity: generalized class of people, places, or things
(objects) for which data is collected, stored, and
maintained
• Attribute: characteristic of an entity
• Data model: diagram of data entities and
relationships
• Relational model: describes data in which all
elements are placed in two-dimensional tables
called relations
Fundamentals of Information Systems, Fourth Edition 54
 Summary (continued)
• Selecting: eliminates rows according to criteria
• Projecting: eliminates columns in a table
• A database management system (DBMS) is a
group of programs used as an interface between:
– Database and application programs
– Database and the user
• Data dictionary: detailed description of all the data
used in the database

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 Summary (continued)
• Data warehouse: database that collects business
information from all aspects of a company’s
processes, products, and customers
• Data mining: an information-analysis tool for
discovering patterns and relationships in a data
warehouse
• Object-oriented database: stores both data and its
processing instructions

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 That’s all for now

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Fundamentals of Information Systems, Fourth Edition 58
 Review Questions
1. What do you understand by the following
terminologies as related to the database systems:
a) DBMS e) module
b) Database f) form
c) Table g) query
d) Report
2. What is the aim of query?
3. With examples, describe the meaning of the term
knowledge discovery.
4. Describe security features used in database
systems.
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