Temperature Sensors

By
Dr M. S. Rao
 Outline of presentation
• Introduction
• Thermometers
• Expansion thermometers
• Resistance thermometers
• Thermocouples
• Radiation pyrometers

2
 Introduction to Temperature
Most fundamental & widely measured and controlled
parameter.
• Measure of hotness and coldness of substance
• Thermal state of the substance.
• Heat and temperature are not same but they are
related to each other.
• Temp means “ degree of heat”
• Heat is usually taken to mean “ Quantity of Heat”
• Temp. and heat are related with each other by second
law of thermodynamics.
3
 Second Law of Thermodynamics
• Relates temperature and heat flow
• Heat flows from its own accord from a
body at a higher temperature to a body at
a lower temperature

4
 Zero Law of Thermodynamics
th

• Temperature measurement is based on

the zeroth law of thermodynamics

• Two bodies in thermal equilibrium with a

third body are in thermal equilibrium with
each other

5
• Temperature is a physical property of a system
– Indicates common notions of hot and cold
– hotter has the greater temperature.
• Temperature is related to Internal energy.
– For a solid, these microscopic motions are principally the
vibrations of the constituent atoms about their sites in the
solid.
– For an ideal mono-atomic gas, the microscopic motions are
the translational motions of the constituent gas particles.

6
• Temperature is measured with thermometers
• Thermometers are calibrated to a variety of temperature
scales.
• Mostly the Celsius scale is used for temperature measuring
• Thermodynamic temperature measured using Kelvin scale.
• The bulk of the U.S. however, relies upon the Fahrenheit
scale.
• Rankine scale is used for combustion.

7
• Temperature plays an important role in
– physics, chemistry, and biology.

• Many physical properties of materials depends

on temeperature
– the phase,density, solubility, vapour pressure and
electrical conductivity depend on the temperature.
– Temperature plays an important role in
determining the rate and extent to which chemical
reaction occur.

8
 Temperature scales.
• Temperature scales are based upon some
recognized fixed points.
• At least two fixed points are required that are
constant in temp. such as
(i) Lower fixed point OR ice point
(ii)Upper fixed point OR Steam point.
• Ice point is the temp. of ice , prepared from the
distilled water, when melting under a pressure of
760 mm Hg.
• Steam point is the temp.of ice, prepared from the
distilled water, when boiling under a pressure of
760 mm Hg.
9
 Types of Temp. scales
1.Fahernheit scale.
• It was introduced in 1709 by German philosopher
Fahrenheit abbreviated as 0F .
• Based upon the fact that the melting and boiling of
ice occurs at fixed temp. and std. Atm. pressure(14.7
psi)
• The melting pt. Of ice is designed at 320F
and steam pt.2120F.
• It is divided into 180 equal divisions between ice pt.
And steam pt.
10
2.Celsius scale.
• It was introduced in 1742 by Swedish astronomer
Celsius abbreviated as 0C .
• Based upon the fact that the melting and boiling of ice
occurs at fixed temp. and std. Atm. pressure(14.7 psi)
• The melting pt. Of ice is designed at 00C
and steam pt.1000C.
• It is divided into 100 equal divisions between ice pt.
And steam pt.
• The relation between 0C and 0F is given as
following,
0
F = 1.8 0C +32
11
3.Kelvin scale.
• It was introduced in 1848 by Lord Kelvin
abbreviated as 0K .
• The melting pt. Of ice is designed at 273.15 0K
and steam pt.373.150K.
• It is divided into 100 equal divisions between
ice pt. And steam pt.
• The relation between 0C and 0F is given as
following,
0
K = 0C + 273.15
12
4.Rankine scale.
• It was introduced in by Rankine abbreviated as
0
R.
• The melting pt. Of ice is designed at 471.7 0R
and steam pt.671.70R.
• It is divided into 180 equal divisions between
ice pt. And steam pt.
• The relation between 0R and 0F is given as
following,
0
R = 0F + 459.69
13
 Temperature Sensors.
The temperature sensors are classified
according to the nature of the change
produced in the testing body due to change
in temperature.
• Thermometers
• Electrical temperature instruments.
• Pyrometers

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Thermometer

15
A common mercury thermometer
• A thermometer measures temperature or
temperature gradient
– thermo from the Greek for heat
– meter from Greek, meaning to measure.
• Thermometers can be divided into two groups
according to the level of knowledge about the
physical basis of the underlying although now
there is a third group that they can be classified as.
thermodyanamics laws and quantities.

16
• For primary thermometers the measured
property of matter is known so well that
temperature can be calculated without any
unknown quantities.

• Examples of these are thermometers based on

the equation of state of a gas, on the velocty of
sound in a gas, on the thermal noise voltage or
current of an electrical resistor, and on the
angular anisotropy of gamma ray emission of
certain radioactive nuclei in a magnetic field.

17
• They have to be calibrated against a primary
thermometer at least at one temperature or at a
number of fixed temperatures. Such fixed points, for
example, triple points and superconducting
transitions, occur reproducibly at the same
temperature.
• Internationally agreed temperature scales are based
on fixed points and interpolating thermometers. The
most recent official temperature scale is the Internal
Temperature Scale of 1990. It extends from 0.65 K
to approximately 1358 K (−272.5 °C to 1085 °C).

18
 Early History
Galileo thermometer

19
• The first thermometer was a thyermoscope. Different
versions of the thyermoscope were invented by
several inventors around the same time.
• The first to put a numerical scale on the thermoscopes
was the Italian inventor Santorio Santorio for use in
medicine. In 1593, Galileo Galilei invented a
rudimentary water thermometer (using the
contraction of air to draw water up a tube).
• He also discovered that liquids of lesser density than
water could be suspended within it and that they
would float at different heights depending on the
temperature; hence Galileo's Thermoscope--Galileo's
use of alcohol enclosed in glass spheres floating in a
column of water in order to measure their differences
in temperature.
20
• First mercury thermometer.
– In 1714, Daniel Gabrieal Fahernheit invented
• Clinical thermometer
– 1866 Sir Thomas Clofford Allbutt invented
– produced a body temperature reading in five minutes as
opposed to twenty.
• This history of the thermometer, from its invention in
the early sixteenth century (an achievement attributed
to at least four scientists, including Galileo) through
various changes and applications over the next three
centuries, includes controversy about its invention, the
story of different scales, from Fahrenheit and Anders
Celsius to the now-forgotten Reaumur, Delisle, and
Christin scales, and the history of the gradual
scientific then popular understanding of the concept of
temperature.
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 Types of thermometers
• Mercury-in-glass thermometer

22
• Thermometers have been built which utilise a
range of physical effects to measure temperature.
Most thermometers are originally calibrated to a
constant-volume gas thermometer.
• A mercury-in-glass thermometer
– invented by German physicist Daniel Gabrieal
Fahernheit
• Calibrated marks on the tube allow the
temperature to be read by the length of the
mercury within the tube, which varies according
to the temperature.

23
• To increase the sensitivity, there is usually a
bulb of mercury at the end of the thermometer
which contains most of the mercury;
expansion and contraction of this volume of
mercury is then amplified in the much
narrower bore of the tube.
• The space above the mercury may be filled
with nitrogen or it may be a vaccum.
• For mercury filled thermometer bulbs,
stainless steel is universally used, because
mearcury tends to amalgamate with copper
and its alloys.
24
 Mercury-in-glass Thermometer
• It utilizes the volumetric expansion of mercury
with temperature as a means of indicating the
temperature
• It has a bulb formed by a glass envelope, which
contains mercury, enclosed in a metal well
• As heat is transferred through the well and metal
stem and into the mercury, the mercury
expands, pushing the column of mercury higher
in the capillary above

25
 Mercury-in-glass thermometer
• The temperature range used is -38 to 950F.
• Lower temperatures limited by freezing point of
mercury -38F
• Accuracy is about 1% of span
• It should be immersed to a sufficient length that
the heat loss along the the thermal well to the
surroundings is a minimum, otherwise
“immersion error” will occur

26
27
 Industrial Uses
• Open tanks containing liquids
• Cooking kettles
• Molten-metal baths
• Steam lines
• Pipe lines for Fluid flow
• Air ducts

28
 Maximum thermometer
• A special kind of mercury thermometer, called a
maximum thermometer, works by having a
constriction in the neck close to the bulb.
• As the temperature rises the mercury is pushed
up through the constriction by the force of
expansion. When the temperature falls the
column of mercury breaks at the constriction
and cannot return to the bulb thus remaining
stationary in the tube.
• The observer can then read the maximum
temperature over a set period of time. To reset
the thermometer it must be swung sharply, or
the constriction may be pulled down with a
magnet. This is similar to the design of a
medical thermometer. 29
• Physical properties
• Mercury will solidify (freeze) at -38.83 °C (-
37.89 °F) and so may only be used at higher
temperatures. Mercury, unlike water, does not
expand upon solidification and will not break
the glass tube, making it difficult to notice
when frozen.
• If the thermometer contains nitrogen the gas
may flow down into the column and be
trapped there when the temperature rises. If
this happens the thermometer will be unusable
until returned to the factory for
reconditioning.
30
• To avoid this some weather services
require that all mercury thermometers be
brought indoors when the temperature
falls to -37 °C (-34.6 °F). In areas where
the maximum temperature is not
expected to rise above -38.83 °C (-37.89
°F) a thermometer containing a mercury-
thallium alloy may be used. This has a
solidification (freezing) point of -61.1 °C
(-78 °F).
31
 Expansion thermometers
• Expansion thermometers are classified as
follows
1 Expansion of solids
(a) Bimetallic Thermometer
2. Expansion of liquids
(a) Liquid In glass thermometer
(b) Liquid In metal thermometer
3. Expansion of gases
(a) Gas thermometer

32
 Solid expansion thermometer
( Bimetallic Thermometer)

• Principle: Expansion of solids in bimetallic

elements due to change in temperature.
• Construction:
→Consist of bonded strips of two
metals such as invar ( iron- nickel)
and brass having a different co-efficient of thermal
expansion.
33
• The metal with the higher expansion is on the
outer side of the curve when the strip is heated
and on the inner side when cooled.
• The sideways displacement of the strip is
much larger than the small lengthways
expansion in either of the two metals. This
effect is used in a range of mechanical and
electrical devices.
• In some applications the bi-metal strip is used
in the flat form. In others, it is wrapped into a
coil for compactness. The greater length of the
coiled version gives improved sensitivity.
34
• When temperature increases, two metals
expands to different lengths in accordance
with their individual rates of thermal
expansion
• Bimetallic strips tends to bend towards the
side of low coefficient of thermal expansion.
• One end of bimetallic strip is fixed so it can
not move. The movement of the bimetallic
strip at second end is utilized to deflect a
pointer over a calibrated scale.

35
• The deflection of the tip is small if
the strip is short and is large if the strip is
long.
• In industrial bimetallic thermometer , the
bimetal is wound in the form of helix with one
end is fastened permanently to the outer
casing and other end is connected to the
pointer stem.
• A pointer is attached to the upper end of the
stem & sweeps over a circular dial to indicate
the temperature.
36
37
• When the temperature surrounding the whole
stem changes, the bimetals expands & helical
bimetal rotates at its free end , thus turning the
inside stem & pointer to a new position on
the dial.
• A thermal well made from brass, steel,
stainless steel or other alloys is used with the
thermometer for protection against corrosion
& breakage.
• This type of thermometer is used to measure
temperature from -103 to 1004 F ( -75 to 540
C)
38
39
Advantages:
• Cheap and tough so can not be broken easily.
• Easily installed and maintained.
• Having Good accuracy relative to cost.
• Having fairly wide temperature range.
Dis- advantages
Materials used in constructing the thermometer
are subject to creep at high temperatures.

40
 Pressure Spring Thermometer

• Liquid expansion thermometer utilizes the

cubical expansion of a liquid like mercury to
indicate the temperature
• Gas expansion thermometer operates at
constant volume, the pressure of the gas being
proportional to temperature
• The vapor-actuated thermometer is operated by
the vapor pressure of a liquid

41
 Pressure Spring Thermometer
• A metal bulb contains the thermometer fluid, a
liquid, a gas, or a liquid-vapor, and is inserted at
the measurement point
• The bulb comes to temperature equilibrium with
its surroundings, thereby developing a given
pressure or displacement of fluid
• A metal capillary is connected to the bulb and
transmits the pressure at the bulb to the
receiving element at the instrument.

42
 Pressure-Spring Thermometer
• The receiving element is a form of bourdon tube
or pressure spring and is used to convert the
pressure or displacement of fluid in the bulb into
a motion
• This motion is multiplied by a linkage to operate
a pen arm over a moving chart for recording
purposes, or to operate a pointer over a
stationary scale for indication of temperature

43
Industrial Pressure-Spring
Thermometer

44
 Gas-expansion thermometer
• A gas-expansion thermometer operates on
constant volume, the gas expanding
according to its temperature
• The pressure created by the expanding
gas is measured by means of a pressure
spring
• The instrument is calibrated for
temperature

45
 Gas-expansion thermometer
• The physical law covering expansion of a
gas is the ideal gas law,
Pv = RT

The gas normally used in gas-expansion

thermometers is nitrogen.

46
 Vapor-actuated thermometer
• A vapor-actuated thermometer operates
from the vapor pressure of a liquid that
partially fills the thermal system (bulb,
capillary, receiving element, armor)
• The vapor pressure is measured by a
pressure spring
• Instrument is calibrated in terms of
temperature

47
 Fluids for vapor-actuated
thermometers
• Methyl chloride
• Sulfur dioxide
• Ether
• Toluene
• Butane
• Propane
• Hexane

48
 Resistance thermometer(RTD)
• Resistance thermometers, also called
resistance temperature detectors (RTDs),
are temperature sensors that exploit the
predictable change in electrical resistance of
some materials with changing temperature.
• As they are almost invariably made of
platinum, they are often called platinum
resistance thermometers (PRTs). They are
slowly replacing the use of thermocouples in
many industrial applications below 600 °C.

49
• General description.
• There are two broad categories, "film" and "wire-
wound" types.
• Film thermometers have a layer of platinum on a
substrate; the layer may be extremely thin, perhaps 1
micrometer. Advantages of this type are relatively
low cost and fast response. Such devices have
improved in performance although the different
expansion rates of the substrate and platinum give "
strain gauge" effects and stability problems.
• Wire-wound thermometers can have greater accuracy,
especially for wide temperature ranges. The coil
diameter provides a compromise between mechanical
stability and allowing expansion of the wire to
minimize strain and consequential drift.
50
• The current international standard which
specifies tolerance and the temperature to
electrical resistance relationship for platinum
resistance thermometers is IEC 751:1983.
• By far the most common devices used in
industry have a nominal resistance of 100
ohms at 0 °C, and are called Pt-100 sensors
('Pt' is the symbol for platinum).
• The sensitivity of a standard 100 ohm sensor
is a nominal 0.385 ohm/°C. RTDs with a
sensitivity of 0.375 and 0.392 ohm/°C are also
available.
51
• How do resistance thermometers work?
• Resistance thermometers are constructed in a
number of forms and offer greater stability,
accuracy and repeatability in some cases than
thermocouples. While thermocouples use the
Seebeck effect to generate a voltage, resistance
thermometers use electrical resistance and
require a small power source to operate. The
resistance ideally varies linearly with
temperature.

52
• Resistance thermocouples are usually made
using platinum, because of its linear
resistance-temperature relationship and its
chemical inertness.
• The platinum detecting wire needs to be kept
free of contamination to remain stable.
• A platinum wire or film is supported on a
former in such a way that it gets minimal
differential expansion or other strains from its
former, yet is reasonably resistant to vibration.

53
• Commercial platinum grades are produced
which exhibit a change of resistance of 0.385
ohms/°C (European Fundamental Interval)
The sensor is usually made to have a
resistance of 100 Ω at 0 °C. This is defined in
BS EN 60751:1996. The American
Fundamental Interval is 0.392 Ω/°C.
• Resistance thermometers require a small
current to be passed through in order to
determine the resistance. This can cause self-
heating, and manufacturers' limits should
always be followed along with heat path
considerations in design.
54
• Care should also be taken to avoid any strains
on the resistance thermometer in its
application.
• Lead wire resistance should be considered,
and adopting three and four wire connections
can eliminate connection lead resistance
effects from measurements

55
 Advantages and limitations:
• Advantages of platinum resistance
thermometers:
• High accuracy
• Low drift
• Wide operating range
• Suitability for precision applications

56
• Limitations:
• RTDs in industrial applications are rarely used
above 660 °C. At temperatures above 450 °C
it becomes increasingly difficult to prevent the
platinum from becoming contaminated by
impurities from the metal sheath of the
thermometer.
• This is why laboratory standard thermometers
replace the metal sheath with a glass
construction.
• Compared to thermistors, platinum RTDs are
less sensitive to small temperature changes
and have a slower response time. However,
thermistors have a smaller temperature range.
57
• Resistance thermometer elements
• Resistance thermometers elements are
available in a number of forms.
• The most common are:
• Wire-wound in a ceramic insulator - works
with temperatures to 850 °C
• Wires encapsulated in glass - resists
vibration, offers the most protection to the
detecting wire, and is inexpensive to mass-
produce.

58
Resistance thermometer construction

59
• These elements nearly always require insulated leads
attached. At low temperatures PVC, silicon rubber or
PTFE insulators are common to 250 °C.
• Above this, glass fibre or ceramic are used. The
measuring point and usually most of the leads require
a housing or protection sleeve. This is often a metal
alloy which is inert to a particular process.
• Often more consideration goes in to selecting and
designing protection sheaths than sensors as this is
the layer that must withstand chemical or physical
attack and offer convenient process attachment
points.

60
61
• Resistance thermometer wiring
configurations
• Two-wire configuration.

62
• The simplest resistance thermometer configuration
uses two wires. It is only used when high accuracy is
not required as the resistance of the connecting wires
is always included with that of the sensor leading to
errors in the signal.
• Using this configuration you will be able to use 100
metres of cable. This applies equally to balanced
bridge and fixed bridge systems.
• The values of the lead resistance can only be
determined in a separate measurement without the
resistance thermometer sensor and therefore a
continuous correction during the temperature
measurement is not possible.

63
• Three-wire configuration

64
• In order to minimize the effects of the lead
resistances a three wire configuration can be used.
• Using this method the two leads to the sensor are on
adjoining arms, there is a lead resistance in each arm
of the bridge and therefore the lead resistance is
cancelled out.
• High quality connection cables should be used for
this type of configuration because an assumption is
made that the two lead resistances are the same.
• This configuration allows for up to 600 metres of
cable.

65
• Four-wire configuration

66
• The four wire resistance thermometer
configuration even further increases the
accuracy and reliability of the resistance being
measured.
• In the diagram above a standard two terminal
RTD is used with another pair of wires to form
an additional loop that cancels out the lead
resistance.
• It provides full cancellation of spurious effects
and cable resistance of up to 15 Ω can be
handled.
67
• History
• The application of the tendency of
electrical conductors to increase their
electrical resistance with rising temperature
was first described by Sir William Siemens at
the Bakerian Lecture of 1871 before the
Royal Society of Great Britain.
• The necessary methods of construction were
established by Callendar, Griffiths, Holborn
and Wein between 1885 and 1900.

68
• Temperature to resistance equation
• The relation between temperature and resistance is
given by the Callendar-Van Dusen equation,

• Here, RT is the resistance at temperature T,

• R0 is the resistance at 0 °C, and the constants (for a
platinum RTD) are
• Since the B and C coefficients are relatively small,
the resistance changes almost linearly with the
temperature.
69
Since the B and C coefficients are relatively
small, the resistance changes almost linearly
with the temperature

70
 Advantages of Resistance
Thermometers
• High accuracy (1/4%)
• Simplicity
• Allows very small increments of
temperature to be detected (as small as
0.03%)

71
 Thermal Coefficient of Resistance
• The resistance thermometer operates from
the change of electrical resistance of
substance with temperature
• Metals and semiconductors have been
used
• Besides platinum, copper and nickel are
also used

72
Industrial Resistance-Thermometer
Bulbs
• Consists of a coil of fine wire wound on or
in a frame of insulating material
• The resistance wire is arranged so that
good thermal conductivity is provided and
a high rate of heat transfer obtained.

73
Industrial Resistance-Thermometer
Bulbs
• The windings should be made in such a
manner that physical strain is negligible as
the wire expands and contracts with
temperature changes
• Inductive effects due to the position of the
wire in the coil must be minimized in order
to make the measurement one of
resistance only

74
•Standard resistance thermometer data
Temperature sensors are usually supplied with thin-
film elements. These are rated as:
Tolerance class Valid range
Class A -70 to +500 °C
Class (1/2B) -30 to +350 °C
Class 1/3B 0 to +100 °C

75
Platinum Resistance-thermometer
Bulb
• Resistance at 32oF between 10 and 35
ohms
• The wire is wound on a notched or
perforated mica frame so as to have a
round coil shape
• The platinum wires may also be clamped
between two mica plates
• Used between limits of -300 and 1200oF

76
 Copper Resistance Bulb
• 10 ohms resistance at 32oF
• Low resistivity of copper
• Frame may be composed of plastic or
glass
• Used between limits of -40 and 250oF

77
 Nickel Resistance Bulb
• Resistance at 32oF of 100 to 300 ohms
• Resistivity of nickel is high, relatively
inexpensive, and high resistance makes
resistance measurements easier
• Plastic or glass insulation may be used
• Used between limits of -300 and 600oF

78
 Resistance-Thermometer Circuits
• Measurement of temperature with
resistance thermometer reduces to a
measurement of electrical resistance
• The Wheatstone bridge is the most
common method of measurement

79
 Wheatstone Bridge
• A battery applies a potential across two of the
junction points, and a galvanometer connects
the other two points
• A and B are fixed resistors, r is the resistance-
thermometer bulb, and S is an adjustable slide
wire
• It is a null method of measurement, because at
the balance or null point, the potential across
resistors A and B must be equal to the potential
across r and S.

80
 Wheatstone Bridge Cont.
• Adjustment of slider C on slide wire S
balances the bridge
• The bridge may be calibrated for
temperature with slider C reading on a
calibrated scale.

81
82
• Thermocouple
• In electronics, thermocouples are a widely
used type of temperature sensor and can also
be used as a means to convert thermal
potential difference into electric potential
difference. They are cheap and
interchangeable, have standard connectors,
and can measure a wide range of
temperatures. The main limitation is accuracy;
system errors of less than 1 °C can be difficult
to achieve.
83
• Principle of operation:
• In 1821, the German-Estonian physicist
Thomas Johann Seebeck discovered that when any
conductor (such as a metal) is subjected to a thermal
gradient, it will generate a voltage.
• This is now known as the thermoelectric effect or
Seebeck effect. Any attempt to measure this voltage
necessarily involves connecting another conductor to
the "hot" end. This additional conductor will then
also experience the temperature gradient, and develop
a voltage of its own which will oppose the original.
Fortunately, the magnitude of the effect depends on
the metal in use.
84
• Using a dissimilar metal to complete the circuit
will have a different voltage generated, leaving
a small difference voltage available for
measurement, which increases with
temperature.
• This difference can typically be between 1 to
about 70 microvolts per degree Celsius for the
modern range of available metal combinations.
Certain combinations have become popular as
industry standards, driven by cost, availability,
convenience, melting point, chemical
properties, stability, and output.
85
• It is important to note that thermocouples
measure the temperature difference between
two points, not absolute temperature.

86
• In traditional applications, one of the junctions
— the cold junction — was maintained at a
known (reference) temperature, while the other
end was attached to a probe.
• For example, in the image above, the cold
junction will be at copper traces on the circuit
board.
• Another temperature sensor will measure the
temperature at this point, so that the
temperature at the probe tip can be calculated.

87
 Thermocouples
• The thermocouple has the widest useful
range and application of any temperature
measuring device
• A thermocouple is composed of two
dissimilar wires joined together so as to
produce a thermal emf

88
 Peltier Effect
• The Peltier effect relates the absorption
and evolution of heat at the junctions of a
thermocouple to the current flow in the
circuit
• Heat is evolved at the reference junction
and absorbed at the measuring junction in
proportion to the flow of current

89
 Thomson Effect
• The Thomson effect (Lord Kelvin), is a
relation between the emf generated in a
wire and the temperature difference
between the ends of the wire.
• The Thomson emf is proportional to the
temperature and temperature difference in
the wire and differs for different metals.

90
 Thermocouple
• A thermocouple employs both the Peltier effect
and Thomson effect
• The Peltier effect cannot be used alone, since, if
two dissimilar metals are joined and a higher
temperature exists at the measuring junction,
then there must necessarily be a temperature
gradient along each wire; this involves the
Thomson effect

91
92
 Law of Homogeneous Circuit
• An electric current cannot be sustained in
a circuit of a single homogenous metal, by
the application of heat alone

93
 Law of Intermediate Metals
• The algebraic sum of the thermal emf’s in
a circuit composed of any number of
dissimilar metals is zero, if all the circuit is
at a uniform temperature

94
 Law of Intermediate Metals
• If a net emf did exist, the resulting flow of
electric current would cause heating in
some part of the circuit, thereby
transferring heat from a lower to a higher
temperature without application of external
work – thereby violating the second law of
thermodynamics

95
Law of Intermediate Temperatures
• The thermal emf developed by any
thermocouple of homogeneous metals with its
junction at any two temperatures T1 and T3 resp.,
is the algebraic sum of the thermocouple with its
junctions at temperatures T1 and T2 resp. and
the emf of the same thermocouple with its
junctions at temperatures T2 and T3 resp. This
law deals with calibration of a thermocouple.

96
97
 Desirable Properties of Industrial
Thermocouples
• Relative large thermal emf (10-50 mV)
• Precision of calibration (standard emf
temperature relationship, no drift)
• Resistance to corrosion, oxidation, and
contamination
• Linear relation of emf to temperature

98
Most Common Thermocouples
• Copper-Constantan
• Iron-Constantan
• Chromel-Alumel
• Platinum-platinum, 13% rhodium
• Platinum-platinum, 10% rhodium

99
 Common Thermocouples
• Copper-Constantan thermocouples are
restricted to low temperature
• Platinum thermocouples are used for high
temperature
• Accuracy: Copper-constantan ¾%; Iron-
constantan 1%; Chromel-Alumel ¾%;
Platinum-Pt, 10%Rhodium ½%; Platinum-
Pt, 13% Rhodium ½%

100
 How are thermocouples made
• Thermocouples are most commonly made in the
form of wires, insulated and welded together at
the measuring junction.
• In order to prevent forming of a second junction,
the wires of a thermocouple are insulated from
each other by being threaded through porcelain
insulators.
• The ends of the themocouple wires are
connected to a porcelain block having screw
terminals for connections.

101
 Tube Thermocouples
• Tube thermocouples are made of Iron-
Constantan with the Iron in the form of a
tube, the Constantan wire running down
the center of the tube
• The junction is made by welding the iron
tube around the Constantan wire

102
103
 Thermocouple Lead Wires
• The thermocouple measuring junction is
usually located some distance from the
instrument with which it is used,
sometimes several hundred feet.
• The cost of long lengths of Chromel-
Alumel wire is high, and the cost of even
moderate lengths of platinum wire is
prohibitively expensive

104
 Thermocouple lead wires
• Iron and a copper-nickel alloy lead wires,
which have a temperature-emf
characteristic very close to that of
Chromel-Alumel are widely used.
• For platinum thermocouples, lead wires
are made of copper and a copper-nickel
alloy, the temperature-emf characteristic of
which is the same as for platinum
thermocouple

105
 Two Problems
• 1. Location of the reference junction –
located near and generally inside the
measuring instrument
• 2. Errors introduced by the lead
connecting wires – no effect as long as
ends of the wire are at the same
temperature

106
 Insulation for lead wires
• Enamel
• Cotton covering
• Asbestos
• Glass
• Polyvinyl covering
• Lead sheath over an insulating cover

107
108
 Thermal Wells
• It is not practical to expose the
thermocouple to the fluid in which the
temperature is being measured- may be
corrosive or oxidizing conditions
• Protect the thermocouple by means of a
thermal well or protecting tube
• The thermal well is made in the form of a
tube with a closed end installed.

109
 Selection of a thermal well
• Resistance to corrosion and oxidation
• Resistance to mechanical shock
• Resistance to thermal shock
• Resistance to gas leakage
• Mechanical strength

110
111
 Secondary wells
• Where corrosion may be severe, especially
above 2000oF or where platinum thermocouples
are used, a secondary well covers the primary
thermal well.
• The purpose of the secondary well is to prevent
sagging of the assembly at high temperature
and protect the surface of the primary well so
that it will remain gastight
• Secondary wells are made of metal or ceramic –
calorized iron, Nichrome, porcelain, sillimanite,
mullite
112
• Thermocouples can be connected in series with
each other to form a thermopile, where all the hot
junctions are exposed to the higher temperature
and all the cold junctions to a lower temperature.
• Thus, the voltages of the individual thermocouple
add up, which allows for a larger voltage.
• Having available a known temperature cold
junction, while useful for laboratory calibrations,
is simply not convenient for most directly
connected indicating and control instruments.

113
• They incorporate into their circuits an
artificial cold junction using some other
thermally sensitive device (such as a
thermistor or diode) to measure the
temperature of the input connections at the
instrument, with special care being taken to
minimize any temperature gradient between
terminals. Hence, the voltage from a known
cold junction can be simulated, and the
appropriate correction applied. This is known
as cold junction compensation.
114
• Additionally, cold junction compensation can be
performed by software. Device voltages can be
translated into temperatures by two methods. Values
can either be found in look-up tables or approximated
using polynomial coefficients.
• Usually the thermocouple is attached to the indicating
device by a special wire known as the compensating
or extension cable. The terms are specific. Extension
cable uses wires of nominally the same conductors as
used at the thermocouple itself. These cables are less
costly than thermocouple wire, although not cheap,
and are usually produced in a convenient form for
carrying over long distances - typically as flexible
insulated wiring or multicore cables.

115
• They are usually specified for accuracy over a
more restricted temperature range than the
thermocouple wires. They are recommended
for best accuracy.
• Compensating cables on the other hand, are
less precise, but cheaper. They use quite
different, relatively low cost alloy conductor
materials whose net thermoelectric
coefficients are similar to those of the
thermocouple in question (over a limited
range of temperatures), but which do not
match them quite as faithfully as extension
cables.
116
• The combination develops similar outputs to
those of the thermocouple, but the operating
temperature range of the compensating cable
is restricted to keep the mis-match errors
acceptably small.

117
• The extension cable or compensating cable
must be selected to match the thermocouple.
It generates a voltage proportional to the
difference between the hot junction and
cold junction, and is connected in the
correct polarity so that the additional
voltage is added to the thermocouple
voltage, compensating for the temperature
difference between the hot and cold
junctions.

118
• The relationship between the temperature difference
and the output voltage of a thermocouple is nonlinear
and is given by a polynomial interpolation.

• The coefficients an are given for n from 0 to between

5 and 9.
• To achieve accurate measurements the equation is
usually implemented in a digital controller or stored
in a lookup table. Some older devices use analog
filters.

119
• Different types
• A variety of thermocouples are available,
suitable for different measuring applications
(industrial, scientific, food temperature,
medical research, etc.).
• Type K (Chromel (Ni-Cr alloy) / Alumel (Ni-
Al alloy))
• The "general purpose" thermocouple. It is low
cost and, owing to its popularity, it is available
in a wide variety of probes.

120
• They are available in the −200 °C to
+1200 °C range. The type K was specified at
a time when metallurgy was nowhere near as
advanced as today and consequently
characteristics vary considerably between
examples.
• There is another problem in that one of the
consituent metals is magnetic (Nickel). The
characteristic of the thermocouple undergoes
a step change when a magnetic material
reaches its Curie point.
• This occurs for this thermocouple at 354°C.
Sensitivity is approximately 41 µV/°C.
121
• Type E (Chromel / Constantan (Cu-Ni alloy))
Type E has a high output (68 µV/°C) which makes
it well suited to low temperature (cryogenic) use.
Another property is that it is non-magnetic.
• Type J (Iron / Constantan)
Limited range (−40 to +750 °C) makes type J less
popular than type K. The main application is with
old equipment that cannot accept modern
thermocouples. J types cannot be used above
760 °C as an abrupt magnetic transformation causes
permanent decalibration. Type J's have a sensitivity
of ~52 µV/°C
122
• Type N (Nicrosil (Ni-Cr-Si alloy) / Nisil (Ni-Si
alloy))
• High stability and resistance to high temperature
oxidation makes type N suitable for high
temperature measurements without the cost of
platinum (B, R, S) types. They can withstand
temperatures above 1200 °C. Sensitivity is about
39 µV/°C at 900°C, slightly lower than a Type K.
Designed to be an improved type K, it is becoming
more popular.
• Thermocouple types B, R, and S are all noble metal
thermocouples and exhibit similar characteristics.
They are the most stable of all thermocouples, but
due to their low sensitivity (approximately
10 µV/°C) they are usually only used for high
temperature measurement (>300 °C).
123
• Type B (Platinum-Rhodium/Pt-Rh)
Suited for high temperature measurements up to
1800 °C. Unusually type B thermocouples (due
to the shape of their temperature-voltage curve)
give the same output at 0 °C and 42 °C. This
makes them useless below 50 °C.
• Type R (Platinum /Platinum with 13%
Rhodium)
Suited for high temperature measurements up to
1600 °C. Low sensitivity (10 µV/°C) and high
cost makes them unsuitable for general purpose
use. 124
• Type S (Platinum /Platinum with 10%
Rhodium)
Suited for high temperature measurements up
to 1600 °C. Low sensitivity (10 µV/°C) and
high cost makes them unsuitable for general
purpose use. Due to its high stability type S is
used as the standard of calibration for the
melting point of gold (1064.43 °C).
• Type T (Copper / Constantan)
Suited for measurements in the −200 to 350 °C
range. The positive conductor is made of
copper, and the negative conductor is made of
constantan. Often used as a differential
measurement since only copper wire touches
the probes. 125
• As both conductors are non-magnetic Type T
thermocouples are a popular choice for
applications such as Electrical Generators
which contain strong magnetic fields. Type T
thermocouples have a sensitivity of ~43 µV/°C

• Thermocouples are usually selected to ensure

that the measuring equipment does not limit
the range of temperatures that can be
measured. Note that thermocouples with low
sensitivity (B, R, and S) have a
126
correspondingly lower resolution.
• Applications:
• Thermocouples are most suitable for
measuring over a large temperature range, up
to 1800 C.
• They are less suitable for applications where
smaller temperature differences need to be
measured with high accuracy, for example the
range 0–100 °C with 0.1 °C accuracy. For such
applications, thermistors and RTDs are more
suitable

127
• Field of Applications:
1. Steel Industry
• Type B, S, R and K thermocouples are used
extensively in the steel and iron industry to
monitor temperatures and chemistry
throughout the steel making process.
• Disposable, immersible, Type S thermocouples
are regularly used in the electric arc furnace
process to accurately measure the steel's
temperature before tapping.
• The cooling curve of a small steel sample can
be analyzed and used to estimate the carbon
content of molten steel. 128
 2.Heating appliance safety
• Many gas-fed heating appliances like ovens and
water heaters make use of a pilot light to ignite
the main gas burner as required. If the pilot
light becomes extinguished for any reason,
there is the potential for un-combusted gas to
be released into the surrounding area, thereby
creating both risk of fire and a health hazard.
• To prevent such a danger, some appliances use
a thermocouple as a fail-safe control to sense
when the pilot light is burning. The tip of the
thermocouple is placed in the pilot flame. The
resultant voltage, typically around 20 mV,
operates the gas supply valve responsible for 129
feeding the pilot.
• So long as the pilot flame remains lit, the
thermocouple remains hot and holds the pilot
gas valve open. If the pilot light goes out, the
temperature will fall along with a
corresponding drop in electricity, removing
power from the valve. The valve closes,
shutting off the gas and halting this unsafe
condition.
• Many systems (Millivolt control systems)
extend this concept to the main gas valve as
well. Not only does the electricity created by
the pilot thermocouple activate the pilot gas
valve, it is also routed through a thermostat to
power the main gas valve as well. 130
 Advantages of Radiation
Temperature Measurement
• No direct contact with the body
• Independent of the distance between
heated body and measuring element
• Body may be either moving or stationary

131
 Radiation Temperature
Measurement
• Used for temperatures over 2000oF

132
 Radiant Energy
• Radiant energy is the energy transmitted
in the form of electromagnetic waves and
is exemplified by radio and radar radiation:
infrared, light, and ultraviolet radiation; and
x-ray and gamma-ray radiation

133
 Visible Spectrum
• The visible part of the spectrum extends
from about 0.38 micron (extreme violet) to
0.78 micron (extreme red)

134
 Black Body
• A black body is a body that absorbs all
radiation falling on it without transmitting or
reflecting any.
• A black body radiates energy at all
spectral wavelengths at a maximum rate
corresponding to its temperature
• It is the basis on which radiation laws are
founded

135
 Kirchoff’s Law
• Kirchoff’s Law relates the radiated energy
to absorbed energy: any body in thermal
equilibrium emits as much heat radiation
as it receives at any given wavelength and
temperature (e =a)

136
 Stefan-Boltzmann Law
• The amount of radiant energy from a black body
is given by the Stefan-Boltzmann Law:
• Q = σAT4
• Where Q = radiant flux (radiant energy per unit
time) ergs per second
• σ= Stefan-Boltzmann constant 5.77 x 10-5
erg/sec cm2 deg4
• A= Area of Black Body, sq. cm
• T = temperature, oK

137
Two Bodies Exchanging Radiation
• The Stefan-Boltzmann law is often
expressed for two bodies exchanging
radiation,
• Q = σ A (T24 – T14),
Where one body is at a higher temperature
T2 than the other T1.

138
 Planck’s Radiation Law
• The emissive power of a black body at a given
wavelength is found by Planck’s radiation law:
• W = (C1/λ5) (1/expC2/λT -1),
Where W = spectral radiant flux density
λ = wavelength, cm
C1 = 3.7403 x 109 ergs/sec/cm2/0.01 micron zone
C2 = 1.4384 cm deg
T = temperature, oK

139
 Planck’s distribution law
• The distribution of energy at various
wavelengths of radiation is known
• Intensity of radiation varies appreciably
with wavelength
• Point of maximum radiant intensity shifts
to shorter wavelengths and higher
intensity as the temperature increases

140
 Wein’s Displacement Law
• The point of maximum radiant intensity is
given by Wien’s displacement law
• λm T = 2900,
Where λm is in microns and T in oK
As the temperature of the radiating body
increases, the point of maximum radiant
intensity decreases proportionately

141
 Example of Wien’s displacement
law
• A metal gradually heated changes its color
from red (a long wavelength) to yellow and
white as the intensity of radiation
increases at the shorter wavelengths of
the visible spectra

142
 Radiation Pyrometer
• Measures the total energy of radiation
from a heated body
• Given by Stefan-Boltzmann law
• It is intended to receive the maximum
amount of radiant energy at the widest
range of wavelengths possible
• Range between 0.1 to 8.0 microns

143
 Radiation Pyrometer
• Consists of a radiation receiving element
and a potentiometer instrument
• A lens is used to concentrate the radiant
energy from the source on the diaphragm
and on the thermopile
• Sighting glasses enable the proper line of
sight and focus to be established

144
145
 Radiation Pyrometer
• In a mirror-type thermal radiation receiver,
a diaphragm system together with a mirror
is used to focus the radiation on a
thermopile
• The emf generated by the radiation
receiver depends on the difference in
temperature of the measuring and
reference junctions

146
147
 Optical Pyrometer
• Measures the spectral radiant intensity of
the radiated energy from a heated body at
a given wavelength
• At a given wavelength, the variation of
intensity with temperature can be found

148
 Optical Pyrometer
• The optical pyrometer operates with nearly
monochromatic light at a wavelength of
0.65 microns in the red portion of the
visible spectrum
• Radiation from the target surface is
focused by the lens onto a screen.
• The screen is viewed through a red-filter
glass so that only wavelengths of about
0.65 micron are seen
149
 Optical Pyrometer
• For comparison, a calibrated tungsten
lamp is used
• Its radiation is focused on a screen and
also viewed through a red-filter glass.
• The two screens are then compared by
eye

150
151
 Optical Pyrometer
• For varying the brightness of the comparison
screen image, there are two methods
• In one method, the current through the standard
lamp is adjusted by changing the value of circuit
resistance
• In the second method, the lamp is maintained at
a constant intensity, while the intensity of the
unknown radiation is varied to match the
standard source, and is calibrated for
temperature

152
• Here, a larger voltage is needed than in a pilot
flame safety system described above, for
which reason a thermopile is used rather than
a single thermocouple.
• Such a system requires no external source of
electricity for its operation and so can operate
during a power failure, provided all the related
system components allow for this. Note that
this excludes common forced air furnaces
because external power is required to operate
the blower motor, but this feature is especially
useful for un-powered convection heaters.
153
• A similar gas shut-off safety mechanism using
a thermocouple is sometimes employed to
ensure that the main burner ignites within a
certain time period, shutting off the main
burner gas supply valve should that not
happen.
• Out of concern for wasted energy, many newer
appliances have switched to an electronically
controlled pilot-less ignition, also called
intermittent ignition. This eliminates the need
for a standing pilot flame but loses the benefit
of any operation without a continuous source
of electricity.
154
 Thermopile radiation sensors
• Thermopiles are used for measuring the intensity
of incident radiation, typically visible or infrared
light, which heats the hot junctions, while the cold
junctions are on a heat sink.
• It is possible to measure radiative intensities of
only a few μW/cm2 with commercially available
thermopile sensors. For example, laser power
meters are based on such sensors.
• Radioisotope thermoelectric generators (RTGs)
Thermopiles can also be applied to generate
electricity in
radioisotope thermoelectric generators. 155
 Thermistor

Thermistor symbol
156
• A thermistor is a type of resistor used to measure
temperature changes, relying on the change in its
resistance with changing temperature. Thermistor is a
combination of the words thermal and resistor. The
Thermistor was invented by Samuel Ruben in 1930.
• If we assume that the relationship between resistance
and temperature is linear (i.e. we make a first-order
approximation), then we can say that:
• ΔR = kΔT
where,
ΔR = change in resistance
ΔT = change in temperature
k = first-order temperature coefficient of resistance
157
• Thermistors can be classified into two types
depending on the sign of k. If k is positive, the
resistance increases with increasing
temperature, and the device is called a positive
temperature coefficient (PTC) thermistor,
Posistor.
• If k is negative, the resistance decreases with
increasing temperature, and the device is called
a negative temperature coefficient (NTC)
thermistor. Resistors that are not thermistors
are designed to have the smallest possible k, so
that their resistance remains almost constant
over a wide temperature range.
158
• Steinhart Hart equation
In practice, the linear approximation (above) works
only over a small temperature range. For accurate
temperature measurements, the
resistance/temperature curve of the device must be
described in more detail. The Steinhart-Hart equation
is a widely used third-order approximation:

where a, b and c are called the Steinhart-Hart

parameters, and must be specified for each device. T
is the temperature in kelvin and R is the resistance in
ohms.
159
 To give resistance as a function of temperature,
the above can be rearranged into:
Where,

The error in the Steinhart-Hart equation is

generally less than 0.02°C in the measurement
of temperature. As an example, typical values
for a thermistor with a resistance of 3000 Ω at
room temperature (25°C = 298.15 K) are:

160
• B parameter equation
NTC thermistors can also be characterised with
the B parameter equation, which is essentially
the Steinhart Hart equation with c=0

where the temperatures are in kelvin. Using the

expansion only to the first order yields:

OR
OR
161
• Applications
• PTC thermistors can be used as current-limiting
devices for circuit protection, as replacements for
fuses. Current through the device causes a small
amount of resistive heating. If the current is large
enough to generate more heat than the device can
lose to its surroundings, the device heats up, causing
its resistance to increase, and therefore causing even
more heating.
• This creates a self-reinforcing effect that drives the
resistance upwards, reducing the current and voltage
available to the device.
• NTC thermistors are used as resistance thermometers
in low-temperature measurements of the order of
10 K.
162
• NTC thermistors can be used as inrush-current
limiting devices in power supply circuits. They
present a higher resistance initially which
prevents large currents from flowing at turn-
on, and then heat up and become much lower
resistance to allow higher current flow during
normal operation. These thermistors are
usually much larger than measuring type
thermistors, and are purpose designed for this
application.
• Thermistors are also commonly used in
modern digital thermostats and to monitor the
temperature of battery packs while charging
163
Infrared thermometer

164
• Infrared thermometers offer the ability to detect
temperature optically -- through looking at an
object, measuring its infrared energy radiation,
and reinterpreting the radiation as temperature.
• They offer a method for accurately and quickly
measuring temperature of an object at a distance
and without needing to touch it -- ideal in
situations where the object is moving rapidly, far
away, extremely hot, within a dangerous
environment, and/or the need to avoid
contaminating the target object is critical (such as
with food / medical equipment / pharmaceutical /
electronics production or testing, etc.).
165
• Numerous infrared temperature sensing
products are available on the market, ranging
from flexible-use / portable or dedicated-
function / affixed thermometers (such as that
shown above), to more complex scanning and
thermal imaging camera systems.

166
• Infrared thermometers measure temperature
using blackbody radiation (generally infrared)
emitted from objects.
• They are sometimes called laser
thermometers if a laser is used to help aim
the thermometer, or non-contact
thermometers to describe the device’s ability
to measure temperature from a distance.
• By knowing the amount of infrared energy
emitted by the object and its emissivity, the
object's temperature can be determined.
167
• The most basic design consists of a lens to focus the
infrared energy on to a detector, which converts the
energy to an electrical signal that can be displayed in
units of temperature after being compensated for
ambient temperature variation.

• This configuration facilitates temperature

measurement from a distance without contact with
the object to be measured. As such, the infrared
thermometer is useful for measuring temperature
under circumstances where thermocouples or other
probe type sensors cannot be used or do not produce
accurate data for a variety of reasons.
168
• Some typical circumstances are where the object
to be measured is moving; where the object is
surrounded by an electromagnetic field, as in
induction heating; where the object is contained in
a vacuum or other controlled atmosphere; or in
applications where a fast response is required.
• Infrared thermometers can be used to serve a wide
variety of temperature monitoring functions. A
few examples include:
1. Detecting clouds for remote telescope operation
2. Checking mechanical equipment or electrical
circuit breaker boxes or outlets for hot spots
169
3.Checking heater or oven temperature, for
calibration and control purposes
4.Detecting hot spots / performing
diagnostics in electrical circuit board
manufacturing
5.Checking for hot spots in fire fighting
situations
6.Monitoring materials in process of
heating and cooling, for research and
development or manufacturing quality
control situations
170
• There are many varieties of infrared
temperature sensing devices available today,
including configurations designed for flexible
and portable handheld use, as well many
designed for mounting in a fixed position to
serve a dedicated purpose for long periods.
• Specifications of portable handheld sensors
available to the home user will include ratings
of temperature accuracy (usually plus or minus
a degree or two), plus some other not so
obvious measurements.
171
• The distance to spot ratio (D:S) measures the
diameter of the temperature measurement area as it
relates to the distance between the device and the
surface being read.
• For instance, if your target area was one inch wide
and you could get no closer than 12 inches to your
target, you would need a sensor with a D:S of 12:1
or greater.
• Another feature is whether the sensor has a fixed or
adjustable emissivity setting. If fixed, you would
not get accurate readings from shiny surfaces
(because most sensors are calibrated for non-shiny
surfaces).
172
• emissivity sensors can be effective on
shiny objects by just using tape or paint
on your surface to compensate.

• Typical sensor varieties include:

Spot Infrared Thermometers, also know
as Infrared Pyrometers, designed for
monitoring a finite area or "spot" of space

173
174
• This image shows the results of a Line Scanning
system measuring the shell temperature of a
Cement Kiln.
• Infrared Line Scanning Systems, typically
incorporating what is essentially a spot
thermometer pointed at a rotating mirror, for
continuously scanning a wide area of space.
• These devices are widely used in manufacturing
involving conveyors or "web" processes, such as
large sheets of glass or metal exiting an oven,
fabric and paper, or continuous piles of material
along a conveyor belt.
175
• Infrared Cameras, are essentially infrared
thermometers designed as a camera, monitoring a
thousand points at once, output as a two dimensional
image, and with each pixel representing a
temperature.
• This technology is typically more processor and
software intense than the items above, and is used for
monitoring large areas of space.
• Typical applications include perimeter monitoring
used by military or security personnel, inspection /
process quality montioring of manufacturing
processes, and equipment or enclosed space hot or
cold spot monitoring for safety and efficiency
maintenance purposes.
176
 Pyrometer
• A pyrometer is a temperature measuring device,
which may consist of several different
arrangements. It was invented by Pieter van
Musschenbroek (1692-1761).
• A simple type of pyrometer uses a thermocouple
placed either in the furnace or on the item to be
measured. The voltage output of the thermocouple
is read from a digital or analog meter calibrated in
degrees Celsius (C) or Fahrenheit (F). There are
many different types of thermocouple available,
and these can be used to measure temperatures
from −200 °C to above 1500 °C.
177
• The term can also be applied to the so-called optical
pyrometer or radiation pyrometer, a class of non-
contact instruments measuring temperatures above 600
°C. These are typically used to measure temperatures
of glowing hot metals in a steel mill or foundry. See
also the infrared thermometer.
• One of the most common non-contact pyrometers is
the absorption-emission pyrometer which is a
thermometer for determining gas temperature from
measurement of the radiation emitted by a calibrated
reference source before and after this radiation has
passed through and been partially absorbed by the gas.
Both measurements are made over the same
wavelength interval.
178
• To measure the temperature of incandescent
metals, you look through the pyrometer at the
glowing metal, and turn a knob or ring which
adjusts the temperature of a glowing filament
projected into your field of view. When the
color of the filament matches the color of the
metal, you can read the temperature from a
scale on the filament color adjusting knob/ring.
• The more common name for this type of
instrument is a Disappearing Filament
Pyrometer (DFP). DFPs were very dependent
upon operator judgement in deciding when the
filament had disappeared and often two people
would not be able to agree on the temperature
179
• DFPs are now old technology which have been
replaced by modern Portable Infrared
instruments which typically use a silicon
sensor to measure the incoming radiation and
have optical viewfinders with the temperature
displayed in them.
• These instruments are state of the art with such
features as emissivity correction, digital
readout, data logging, etc. Certain instruments
are manufactured to work at specific
wavelengths for measuring difficult targets
such as plastics and other materials.
180
Thank you
?

181