LOGO

The Study of Human

Development
Defining Human DevelopmentLOGO
 Human development is the multidisciplinary
study of how people change and how they
remain the same over time.
 It refers to changes in a person’s long-term
growth, feelings, and patterns of thinking.
 It continues over the entire course of a person’s
life-span
 Lifespan Development LOGO

Refers to the broad changes and

continuities that constitute a person’s
identity and growth from conception to
death.
 The Science of Human Development
LOGO

 The science of human development reflects

each person’s complexities , uniqueness,
experiences, commonalities, and pattern
across.
 As a science, human development is firmly
grounded in theory and research as it seeks
to understand human behaviour.
Recurring Issues In Human Development
LOGO

Fundamental issues about development

that scholars have addressed throughout
history:
Nature VS Nurture
Continuity VS discontinuity
Universal VS context-specific
development
 The Nature VS Nurture Issue
LOGO

 The degree or extent to which genetic or

hereditary influences (nature) & our
experiences in the environment influence
(nurture) the kind of persons we are.
 Scientists have concluded that virtually no
feature of life-span development is due
exclusively to either the environment or
heredity.
 Instead, development is always mutually
shaped by the influences of both nature and
nurture.
 Continuity VS Discontinuity
LOGO

 This is whether we experience a smooth

progression in our development throughout
life or we experience a series of abrupt shifts
or changes.
 Our behaviours often look nearly identical
(continuous) on a day-to-day basis. But when
we look at our behaviours over the months or
years, the same behaviours may have
changed drastically (discontinuous).
Continuity VS Discontinuity Cont’d.
LOGO

 E.g., Infants who have a satisfying emotional

relationships with their parents typically
become children with satisfying peer
relationships (evidence of continuity)
 On the other hand, later on in life, older
adults may be searching for a sense of closure
to their life experiences and satisfaction for
what they leave as legacy for the next
generation.
Universal VS Context-Specific Development
LOGO

 This looks at whether there is just one path of

development or several paths.
 The fact is, individual development reflects
both universal and context-specific
influences.
 E.g., The basic order of development of
physical skills in infancy is the same in all
cultures but how those skills are encouraged
may differ across cultures
Two Opposing Views On Universal VS Context-
Specific Development LOGO

 In the first view, some theorists argue that

differences among people are simply
variations on one theme.
 That there is really only one fundamental
developmental process for everyone.
Two Views Regarding Universal VS Context-
Specific Development Cont’d. LOGO
 The second view argues that differences among
people are not simply variations on one theme.
 That human development is intertwined with the
context within which it occurs.
 That a person’s development is a product of
complex interaction with the environment, and such
interactions are not always the same.
 That each environment has its own set of unique
procedures.
Three Types of Domains in Development
LOGO

Physical Cognitive Psychosocial

Development Development Development
 Physical Development
LOGO

 Refers to bodily changes, the use of the

body such as motor skills and sexuality.
 The effects of aging (e.g., changes in
height, weight eyesight, muscular
strength, number of teeth, etc).
 Cognitive Development LOGO

Refers to changes in:

 Methods and style of thinking
 Language ability and use
 The strategies for remembering and
recalling information.
 Psychosocial Development LOGO

Refers to changes in:

 Feelings or emotions
 Interpersonal relationships
 The development of a sense of self or
identity.
 Quantitative Changes LOGO

Refer to changes in amount, frequency, or

degree. Any changes that involve an
increase or decrease in some characteristics
Examples of Quantitative Changes:
LOGO

 Changes with number of teeth

 Changes in height
 Changes in weight
 Changes in inches and pounds
 Qualitative Changes LOGO

These are changes in process, function, structure

or organization.
Examples of Qualitative Changes
LOGO

 Older people solve certain types of

problems differently from young people
i.e., they approach problem-solving
differently.
 Older adults are more likely to be
cautious than younger adults.
 Younger children do not use of
categories while older ones do.
Changes Categorized As Both Qualitative
And Quantitative LOGO

These examples illustrate changes in body

structure and increase in size:
 Weight gain
 Increase in height
 Basic Forces in Human Development
LOGO

Human development is based on the combined

impact of these four primary forces:
 Biological forces
 Psychological forces
 Sociocultural forces
 Life-cycle forces
The first three combined are known as the
Bio-Psychosocial Framework
 The Biological Forces LOGO
Biological forces include all genetic and
health-related factors that affect
development such as:
 Prenatal development
 Brain maturation
 Puberty
 Menopause
 Facial wrinkling
 Change in cardiovascular functioning
 The Biological Forces Cont’d.
LOGO

 Major aspects of each biological force are

determined by our genetic code.
 E.g., many children resemble their parents
 However, biological forces also include effects
of lifestyle factors, such as diet, exercise, etc.
The Psychological Forces
LOGO

 Include all internal cognitive, emotional,

perceptual, and personality factors that
influence development.
 These forces are often used to describe
persons’ characteristics.
 E.g., the way we describe ourselves to
others positively; such as being honest,
kind,. intelligent, etc.
Psychological Forces Cont’d.
LOGO

 Collectively, this type of forces explains

the most noticeable differences in people.
 These forces receive the most attention
because of their impact on us in many
ways.
 The Sociocultural Forces
LOGO

 Overall, these forces provide the context for

development.
 They include interpersonal, societal, cultural,
and ethnic factors that affect development.
 Such culture consists of the knowledge,
attitudes, and behaviour associated with
groups of people.
 The Life-Cycle Forces
LOGO

 These forces provide a context for

understanding how we perceive our current
situation and its effects on us.
 They reflect differences in how the same
event affects people of different ages.
The Bio-Psychosocial Network
LOGO
Facts About The Bio-Psychosocial Network
LOGO

They provide one useful way to

organize the biological, psychological,
and sociocultural forces on our
development.
This network emphasizes that the four
forces are mutually interactive.
Each person is a product of a unique
combination of the four forces.
Facts About The Bio-Psychosocial Network Cont’d.
LOGO

No two persons experience them in the

same way. Even identical twins have
different network of friends, partners,
and career choices.
Development cannot be understood by
examining the forces in isolation.
Similar events can have different effects
on us.
 Developmental Theories
LOGO
 Theories are organized set of ideas or
knowledge which provides testable
explanations of human behaviour and
development.
 E.g., why do some babies cry often?
 At present, there is no single unified theory of
human development.
 Eric Erikson proposed a life-span theory of
eight psychosocial stages of development with
each stage characterized with a particular
struggle or challenge.
 Five General Perspectives That
Influence Current Research LOGO
 Psychodynamic theory,
 Learning theory
 Cognitive theory
 Ecological and systems theory
 Theories involving selective optimization,
with compensation, life-span and life-
course perspectives.
 Psychodynamic Theories
LOGO

 Psychodynamic theories propose that

development is largely determined by
how well people resolve conflicts at
different ages.
 When children overcome early obstacles
easily, they are better able to handle later
ones.
Psychodynamic Theories Cont’d
LOGO

 Psychodynamic theories propose that

development is an active process that is
influenced by inborn, biological drives,
conscious and unconscious experiences.
 The Psycho-sexual stages of development by
Sigmund Freud and the Psychosocial stages of
development by Erik Erikson are examples of
this perspective.
 The Psychodynamic perspective traces its roots
to Sigmund Freud’s theory that personality
emerges from conflicts.
Psychosexual Stages of Development
LOGO

Invented by Sigmund Freud.

 Oral Stage
 Anal Stage
 Phallic Stage
 Latency Stage
 Genital Stage
 ORAL STAGE
LOGO

At birth the infant gains pleasure through

sucking and later biting.
 ANAL STAGE
LOGO

 During this stage, at about 18 months

of age, the libido becomes attached to
anal activities.
 This stage coincides with toilet-training.
 PHALLIC STAGE
LOGO

 At age 4, the child’s libido becomes

attached to the sexual organs.
 The child now experiences sexual
feelings toward parent of opposite sex.
 LATENCY STAGE
LOGO

 Takes place from age 6 until puberty.

 The child’s sexuality lies dormant during
this stage.
 GENITAL STAGE
LOGO

 The onset of puberty takes place with

hormonal changes and sexual arousal.
 This marks the transition into mature
adult sexuality.
 Psychoanalytic Theory
LOGO

Sigmund Freud believed that there are

three levels of awareness:
 The Conscious
 The Preconscious
 The Unconscious
Three Part-structure of Personality
LOGO

Freud believed that our personality has

parts by explaining the working of the mind
using three constructs:
 The Id
 The Ego
 The Super Ego
 The Id
LOGO

 The Id functions through the primary

process as the source of all wishes and
desires.
 It is unconscious and present at birth.
 It usually tries to satisfy a person’s
biological needs and desires.
 It motivates behavior that seeks to
maximize pleasure and avoid
discomfort.
 The infant is totally motivated by it
 The Ego
LOGO

 The ego is rational, conscious, reality-oriented,

problem-solving in nature.
 It functions according to reality principles.
 It functions through the secondary process by
satisfying needs in a socially appropriate
manner.
 It harmonizes and creates a balance between
the id and the superego.
 It mediates between the id and superego to
resolve tensions or conflicts.
 It may defend itself at times using defense
mechanism
 The Superego
LOGO

 The superego is the moral and ethical

part of the personality and is often in
conflict with the id.
 It includes the child’s emerging sense of
conscience.
 It contains a set of principles gathered
from interacting with others in society.
 It compares your behavior to your ego
ideal
 It causes individuals to experience guilt.
 It acts as perfectionist and often demands
restraint in behaviors
The Psychosocial Stages Development
LOGO

 Trust VS Mistrust
 Autonomy VS Shame and Doubt
 Initiative VS Guilt
 Industry VS Inferiority
 Identity VS Role Confusion
 Intimacy VS Isolation
 Generativity VS Stagnation
 Integrity VS Despair
Psychosocial Stages Development Cont’d
LOGO

 Erikson proposed that personality development

is determined by interaction of an internal
maturational plan and external societal
demands
 That life is composed of eight stages and that
the order of the stages is biologically fixed.
 That challenges are met with the combination of
inner psychological and outer social influences.
 That when challenges are met successfully, we
are well prepared to meet the challenge of the
next stage.
Psychosocial Stages Development Explained
LOGO
 Basic Trust VS Mistrust
LOGO

 This takes place from birth to 1 year

 The child develops trusting relationships
with his caregivers and others during this
stage.
 If children are cared for warmly and
lovingly, they are likely to trust their
environment.
 Trust is the cornerstone of the child’s
attitude toward life.
 Autonomy VS Shame and Doubt
LOGO

 From ages1 to 3 years, the child must

learn control over bodily functions (bladder
& bowel) and other activities.
 Toilet training takes place at this stage
 Parents can help children acquire a sense
of autonomy by encouraging them to do
what they can do for themselves.
 Initiative VS Guilt
LOGO

 From Ages 3 to 6 years, the child tests

the limits of self-assertion and
purposefulness.
 Children who are punished for expressing
their desires and plans will develop a
sense of guilt, which may lead to lack of
assertiveness later in life
 Industry VS Inferiority LOGO

 From 6 to 12 years, the child experiences

the challenge of mastering many new
social and intellectual tasks during this
stage.
 Children must learn the academic skills of
reading, writing and math as well as
social skills.
 Children who are constantly compared
with others unfavorably may develop a
sense of inferiority.
 Identity VS Role Confusion
LOGO

 From ages12 to 19 years, children attempt to

form an identity and coherent self-concept.
 The adolescents who develop a solid sense
of identity formulates a satisfying plan and
gains a sense of security.
 Adolescents who do not develop this sense
of identity may develop role confusion, a
sense of aimlessness and of being adrift.
 Intimacy VS Isolation LOGO

 From ages19 -25 years, the young adult

must develop close and committed
relationships with others.
 The negative outcome of this stage of young
adulthood is isolation- the inability or
unwillingness to commit oneself to others.
 An inability to share one’s innermost feeling
and thoughts can cause isolation, which
leads to loneliness and despair.
Generativity VS Stagnation
LOGO

 From ages 25 to 50 years, adults attempt to

help future generations during this stage.
 It involves investing something of oneself in
the future, such as through one’s children or
grandchildren or through other means such
as community service.
 The negative outcome of this stage involves
absorption in one’s own personal needs and
an inability or unwillingness to give to
others.
 Ego Integrity VS Despair
LOGO

 From 50 years old and up, older adults

confront crises during this stage.
 After years of facing challenges and
problems, older adults can look back
on a productive and purposeful life
 The Epigenetic Principles
LOGO

 In Erikson’s theory, this means that each

psychosocial strength has its own special
period of particular importance.
 It takes a lifetime to acquire all of the
psychosocial strengths.
 Learning Theories
LOGO
 This approach emphasizes the role of
experience.
 It examines how behaviour is affected by
reward & punishment.
 It states that people learn from watching others
around them.
 It concentrates on how learning influences
behaviour.
 Two influential theories fall under in this
perspective are: Behaviourism and Social
Learning theory.
 Theory of Behaviourism
LOGO

 This theory was invented by John Watson was

known as the “father of Behaviourism.”
 He believed that infants’ minds are like “blank
slates” and argued that learning determines
what people will become.
 He assumed that with the correct techniques,
anything could be learned by almost anyone.
 That our experience is just what matters in
determining the course of development.
Theory of Behaviourism Cont’d.
LOGO

 Behaviourism theoretical goal is the

prediction and control of behaviour.
 John Watson didn’t do much research
to support his claims,
So, B.F. Skinner filled the gap with
the his theory by studying Operant
Conditioning.
 LOGO

“Give me a dozen healthy infants

well-formed, and my own specified world
to bring them up in and I’ll guarantee to
take anyone at random and train him to
become any type of specialist I might select
—doctor, lawyer, artist, merchant-chief
and yes, even beggar-man and thief,
regardless of his talents, penchants,
tendencies, abilities, vocations, and race of
Theory of Behaviourism Cont’d
LOGO

 Behaviorists argue that the environment

determines behavior and if it is altered
adequately, behavior change will follow.
 A behaviorist is one who explains
behavior in terms of process of learning
by emphasizing the importance of the
environment determining behavior.
 Classical and Operant Conditioning are
two examples of this approach.
 Operant Conditioning
LOGO

 The consequences of a behaviour is

examined to determine whether such
behaviour is repeated in the future.
 Skinner showed that two types of
consequences influence behaviour:
reinforcement and punishment.
 When applied properly, reinforcement and
punishment are powerful influences on
humans.
 Reinforcement
LOGO

 Refers to a consequence that increases

the future likelihood of a behaviour that it
follows.
 Two Types of Reinforcement
LOGO

 Positive reinforcement – consists of giving

rewards such as praise, food, money, etc.
to increase the likelihood of a previous
behaviour.
 Negative reinforcement – consists of
rewarding people by taking away
unpleasant things. E.g., if a child cleans
his room, he doesn’t have to do the
dishes or other chores.
 Punishment LOGO

 This is the consequence that decreases

the future likelihood of the behaviour that
follows.
 Punishment suppresses a behaviour in
two ways: either by adding something
aversive (e.g. nagging) or by withholding
a pleasant event (e.g., not being allowed
to watch TV).
 Social Learning Theory
LOGO

This theory includes:

 Imitation or observational learning;
 Social Cognitive theory
 Self-efficacy
 Social Learning Theory
LOGO

 Researchers discovered that people at

times learn without reinforcement or
punishment.
 People learn much by watching how
others behave around them
 The process of imitation involves:
attention, retention, motor reproduction,
and motivational processes.
Social Learning Theory Cont’d.
LOGO

 People don’t always imitate what they see

around them. Instead, they usually imitate
people who are popular, smart, or
talented.
 They are more likely to imitate when the
behaviour they see is rewarded than
when it is punished.
Imitation/Observational Learning.
LOGO

Learning that occurs by simply watching

how others behave
 Social Cognitive Theory
LOGO
 This theory was invented by Albert Bandura.
 He based this theory on a more complex view
of reward, punishment, and imitation.
 The theory is “cognitive” because Bandura
believes people actively try to understand what
goes on in the world.
 It is “social” because, along with reinforcement
and punishment, what other people do is an
important source of information about the world.
 Bandura, Skinner and other learning theorists
believe that experience propels us along our
developmental journeys.
 Self-Efficacy LOGO

 This refers to people’s beliefs about their own

abilities and talents and
 That such beliefs help to determine when we
will imitate others.
 That when we imitate others will depend on
who the other person is, whether that person’s
behaviour is rewarded, and our beliefs about
our own abilities.
 Bandura also argues that experience gives
people a sense of self-efficacy.
Cognitive-Developmental Theory
LOGO

 This focuses on how people think and

how thinking changes over time.
 It focuses on thought processes and the
construction of knowledge.
 Two Distinct Approaches of Cognitive-
Developmental Theory LOGO

 Theory of Cognitive Development and its

recent extension.
 Information Processing
Cognitive Stages of Development
LOGO

 The Sensorimotor Stage

 The Preoperational Stage
 The Concrete Operational Stage
 The Formal Operational Stage
LOGO
THE SENSORIMOTOR STAGE
LOGO

 Takes place between birth to about age 2 years old.

 Children investigate their world using their senses
(vision, hearing, etc.) and motor activities.
 They develop object permanence which is the
understanding that objects and people do not appear
merely because they are out of sight.
 The child’s abilities in this stage are limited by inability
to use language or symbols.
 Children must experience everything directly through
their senses and through feedback from motor
activities
 PRE-OPERATIONAL STAGE
LOGO
 Takes place between the ages of 2 and 7
years.
 Children negotiate the preoperational
stage.
 Children can use language and symbols,
but their understanding of the world is
limited.
 Children often believe inanimate objects
are alive- that stuffed animals have a life of
their own.
 Children in this stage are artificial (i.e., they
interpret all natural phenomena).
 CONCRETE OPERATIONAL STAGE
LOGO

 This stage lasts from 7 to about age 12

years.
 Pre-operational reasoning gradually is
overcome during this stage.
 Children become less egocentric and
can see things from other people’s point
of view.
FORMAL OPERATIONAL STAGE
LOGO

 During this stage adolescents develop

the ability to test hypotheses in a
mature, scientific manner.
 Children also can understand and
communicate their positions on complex
ethical issues that demand the use of
abstractions.
 Evaluating the Cognitive Development
Theory
LOGO

 The theory is valuable because it

shows how children think and
approach problems.

 It describes children as active, not

passive in their search for information
or knowledge. It implies that children
are not mere passive receivers of
stimulation.
Evaluating the Cognitive Development Theory Cont’d.
LOGO

 It describes the sequence through which

children acquire important skills.
 It is regarded as the most influential
theory in all of developmental psychology.
 It shows that children initiate action and
react to stimuli in their environment. In
other words, they are shaped by and
actively shaped their own environment.
Disadvantage of the Cognitive Development Theory
LOGO

The theory lacks control and seems

to underestimate the influence of
learning.
Theory of Cognitive Development
LOGO

 Invented by Jean Piaget, the most influential

psychologist of the 20th century.
 His theory proposes that thinking develops in a
universal sequences of stages.
 It focuses on how children construct knowledge
and how such constructions change over time.
 Piaget believed that children naturally try to
make sense of their world.
 That children act like scientists, creating
theories about the physical and social world.
Theory of Cognitive Development Cont’d.
LOGO
 As with real scientific theories, when a child’s
predicted belief occurs, the child’s belief in his
theory grows stronger.
 When the predicted event doesn’t occur, the child
must revise his theory.
 E.g., infants want to know about objects: “what will
happen when I push this toy off the table?”
 They also want to know about people: “who is this
person who feeds and cares for me?”
Theory of Cognitive Development Cont’d.
LOGO

 Piaget also believed children begin to construct

knowledge in new ways at a few critical points
in their development.
 When this happens, children revise their
theories radically.
 Piaget believed that these changes occur three
times in development:
a) the 1st at about age 2 years
b) the 2nd at about age 7 years
c) the 3rd just before adolescence
Theory of Cognitive Development Cont’d.
LOGO

 These changes mean that children go through

four distinct stages in cognitive development
according to Piaget.
 Each stage represents a fundamental change in
how children understand and organize their
environment.
 Information Processing
LOGO

 The theory proposes that human cognition

consists of mental hardware and software.
 It uses the computer to illustrate the working of
human cognition.
 Mental hardware refers to cognitive constructs,
including memories.
 Mental software includes organized sets of
cognitive processes to complete specific tasks
like reading, playing games.
Information Processing Learning Theory Cont’d
LOGO
 The process by which specialists investigate the
way people take in, process, and act on
information.
 It uses computer as analogy to illustrate the
working of the human mind but at the same time,
they do not see humans as computers or robots.
 It also helps to diagnose difficulty in problem-
solving.
 It emphasizes the analysis of sub-processes such
as: attention, perception, memory, mediating
process in which we deal with information and
response system.
Information Processing Learning Theory Cont’d.
LOGO

 This approach is valuable because it

yields a detailed look at processes
involved in cognition.
Lev Vygotsky’s Theory of Learning
LOGO

 One of the first theorists to emphasize how

children’s thinking doesn’t develop in a vacuum.
 That children’s thinking is influenced by
sociocultural context in which children grow up.
 He focused on ways that adults convey beliefs,
customs, values and skills of their culture to
children.
 Piaget, Vygotsky, and information processing
theorists believed that children’s thinking
becomes more sophisticated as they develop.
The Ecological and Systems Approach
LOGO

 The ecological approach proposes that all

aspects of development are
interconnected.
 In ecological theory, human development
is inseparable from the environmental
contexts in which people develop.
Two Examples of the Ecological and Systems
Approach LOGO

 Bronfenbrenner’s theory of the Ecological

Systems.
 The Competence-Environmental Press
Framework.
 The Ecological Systems LOGO

The systems include the following:

the microsystem,
the mesosystem,
the exosystem,
the macrosystem.
The Ecological Systems Defined
LOGO

 The Microsystem - People and objects in the

immediate environment.
 The Mesosystem - Influences of Microsystems on
each other.
 The Exosystem - Social, environmental, and
governmental forces.
 The Macrosystem - Subcultures and cultures in
which the other three systems are imbedded
LOGO
 The Microsystem LOGO

 It strongly influences development

 It is consisted of the people and objects in
an individual’s immediate environment.
 These are the people closest to a child
such as, parents or siblings.
 Some children may have more than one
microsystem. E.g., day-care setting.
 The Mesosystem LOGO

 They are created when microsystems are

themselves connected.
 What happens in one microsystem is
likely to influence other microsystems.
 E.g., a person having a stressful day at
school is likely to be grouchy at home.
 So, the microsystems of home and work
are interconnected emotionally in the
above example.
 The Exosystem LOGO

 Refers to social settings that we may not

experience first-hand or directly but our
development is influenced by them.
 Its effects on human can be quite strong
 E.g., changes in government policy.
 The Macrosystem
LOGO

 It is the broadest environmental context.

 It includes the cultures and subcultures in
which the microsystem, mesosystem, and
exosystem are embedded.
 E.g., a mother, her workplace, her child,
and the child’s school are interconnected.
 The macrosystem evolves over time.
Ecological Systems Theory Cont’d
LOGO

 The theory emphasizes the many levels of

influence on human development.
 People are affected directly by family members
and friends and indirectly by social systems
which in turn, are affected by our cultural beliefs
and heritage.
 This theory is based on the idea that human
development is inseparable from the
environmental contexts in which we develop
Ecological Systems Theory Cont’d
LOGO

 Urie Brofenbrenner proposed that the

developing person is embedded in a
series of complex and interactive
systems.
 Brofenbrenner divided the environment
into four levels known as Ecological
Systems.
 Microsystem
LOGO

 This consists of situations in which the

individual experiences face-to-face
contact with important individuals.
 It refers to the immediate interaction
between the individual and the
environment.
 Eg. Face-to-face interactions at home or
school, etc. At first it is limited to home
and family then later, elsewhere as the
child develops.
 Mesosystem
LOGO

 This is the connections and relationships

that exist between two or more
microsystems.
 It refers to the interrelationships among
two or more settings in which the person
actually participates.
 Eg., the relationship between parents and
school or daycare center.
 Exosystem
LOGO

 Refers to settings in which the person

does not participate but is affected.
 Eg., what takes place at the workplace of
child’s parent or decision made by the
school board for the school the child
attends.
 Macrosystem
LOGO

 The macrosystem is the overall society,

with its overarching institutions,
practices,and patterns of belief.
 This is composed of ideology or belief
system inherent in social institutions
which include: ethnic, cultural, religious,
economic, and political influences.
 Eg., people in Jamaica live under a
different cultural and political system that
differs from other countries.
 Bronfenbrenner’s Theory Of The
Ecological Systems LOGO

 Bronfenbrenner’s theory on ecological

systems provides a framework for
understanding the many contexts of
development.
 Ecological theorists closely analyze the
environment into four parts known as the
ecological systems.
 All the systems are interrelated and each
system affects the others.
DISADVANTAGE OF THE ECOLOGICAL SYSTEM
LOGO

Ecological theory is too complex for use in

day-to-day analysis of development.
 Lawton & Nahemow’s
Competence-Environmental Press Theory LOGO

Adaptation, or development, depends

upon:
A person’s abilities or “competencies”
Their environment and the demands it
places on them
Emphasis is on how these factors interact
Questions Traditional Theories of Human Development
Do Not Adequately Address LOGO

 Does development continue throughout the

lifespan?
 What are the unique or specific
developmental influences or issues of
adulthood?
 How do we explain the apparent decline of
abilities in later adulthood?
Current Perspectives in Human Development
LOGO

Life-Span Perspective
There are many factors and one does not
adequately explain development. All must
be considered
Selective Optimization with Compensation
Describes choices that determine and
regulate development and aging
 Current Perspectives
(Cont) LOGO

• The Life-Course Perspective

– Examines how different generations
experience and adjust to biological,
psychological, and sociocultural forces
within the historical time-period of their
lives
Matilda Riley’s Life-Span Perspective
LOGO

 Emphasizes the need to view the entire

life-span to understand a person’s
development
 The social, environmental, and historical
aspects of one’s life must be considered
 Learning about patterns of development
influences society
 Four Features of the Life-span Approach
LOGO

 Multidirectionality - Different areas of development

grow and decline at the same time.
 Plasticity -Skills and abilities can be improved or
developed throughout the life-span
 Historical Context – Historical time periods must be
considered in examining development
 Multiple Causation - Biological, psychological,
sociocultural, and life-cycle changes must be
considered
Selective Optimization With Compensation
(SOC) LOGO

 Elective Selection -Making choices to

reduce involvement in order to
concentrate on another
 Loss-based Selection –Reducing
involvement because of lack of
resources or abilities
 Compensation - Finding alternate ways
of meeting goals due to loss of ability or
diminished skills
 The Life Course Perspective
LOGO

Emphasizes how:
Personal life-events interact with historical
influences
Individual issues integrate with family
issues
Earlier life events and the period of history
in which they occurred shaped subsequent
events and issues
 Doing Developmental Research
Learning Objectives LOGO

 How do scientists measure topics of interest

in studying human development?\
 What research designs are used to study
human development?
 How do researcher integrate results from
multiple studies?
 What ethical procedures must researchers
follow?
 How do investigators communicate results
from research studies?
 How does research affect public policy?
 Research Methods Used in Studying
Human Development LOGO

1) Naturalistic Observation
2) Case Studies
3) Survey Method
4) Correlations
5) Experimentation
6) Longitudinal Research
7) Cross-sectional Research
8) Time-lag Study
9) Sequential Design
10) Cross-cultural Research
 Human Development Research
LOGO

Systematic Observation
Naturalistic Observation - “Real-life”
observations
Structured Observation - Researcher
creates a situation likely to result in a type
of behavior in which she/he is interested
 Other Behavioral Measures
LOGO

• Sampling Behavior with Tasks

• Self Reports
• Physiological Measures
 Evaluating Research Methods
LOGO

 Reliability - Does this method

consistently measure what is being
studied?
 Validity - Does this measure provide a
true picture of what is being studied?
 Representational Sampling
LOGO

• Populations
– Broad groups of people in which
researchers may be interested
• Sample
– A subset of the population chosen to
represent the population
 General Research Designs
LOGO

Correlational Studies
Measures relationship between variables
as they are observed naturally in the world
Provides an index called the correlation
coefficient (“r”) which indicates the strength
of the relationship between variables
Correlation does not prove causation
 Experimental Studies
LOGO

 Studies the effect of one variable on

another.
 Studies possible “cause and effect”
relationship:
– The Independent Variable is the factor that
is being manipulated
– The Dependent Variable is the behavior
that is studied for possible change
Designs For Studying Development
LOGO

 Longitudinal Studies - Observes or tests

one group of individuals over a long
period. Is expensive and requires a
large time commitment
 Cross-Sectional Studies - Observes or
tests groups of different ages. More
time-effective, less expensive, but
cannot show small changes of
continuity of development
 Designs For Studying Development Cont
LOGO

Sequential Studies
 A combination of cross-sectional and
longitudinal designs
 Allows for flexibility to collect information
in several ways
 Avoids cohort effects
 Integrating Findings From
Different Studies LOGO

• Meta-analysis
– Analysis of many studies to estimate
relations between variables
– Allows scientists to verify findings across
many studies
Conducting Research Ethically
LOGO

• Minimize and warn of any risks to

participants
• “Informed Consent”
• Avoid deception
• Individual results or data must be kept
anonymous or confidential
Communicating Research Results
LOGO

• Research results are published in

scientific journals
• To be published in journals, research
results must be useful, well-done, and
original
 Applying Research Results:
Social Policy LOGO

• Driving age
• Stem cell research
• Adoption policies
 Think About This:
LOGO

• How does being a participant in a

scientific study affect behavior?
• What if the only way to collect valid
information about a factor requires
putting subjects at risk, or not informing
them of possible risks?