1A Introduction

BASIC ELECTRONICS
ENGINEERING
Syllabus
UNIT – I : DIODES AND CIRCUITS

 PN junction diode,
 V-I characteristics,
 Diode as a rectifier,
 Specification of rectifier diodes,
 HW, FW, Bridge rectifiers,
 Equation for Idc, Vdc, Vrms, Irms, efficiency and
 Ripple factor for each configuration,
 Capacitor filter, ripple factor,
 Zener diode characteristics, specification, zener
 Voltage regulator,
 LED characteristics, configurations – discrete,
seven segment, Bar graph, matrix, concept of
multiple display.
2
Atomic Structure
All matters is made up of atoms; and all atoms consist of

electrons, protons, and neutrons.
In this section we will learn about
The structure of the atom.
 Electron orbits and shells.
 Valence electrons
 Ions.
 Semiconductor materials – Silicon and Germanium.
3
Atomic Structure
After completing this section, you should be able to:
Discuss the basic structure of atom.

Define nucleus, protons, neutrons, and electron
Describe an element’s atomic number
Explain electron shells
Explain what a valence electron is
Describe ionization
Explain what a free electron is
4
The structure of an Atom
Any substance, solid, liquid or gaseous is made up of
molecules and molecules are made up of atoms.
Atoms contains tiny particles called protons, electrons

and neutrons. Which are called as fundamental
particles.
Protons are positively charged, electrons are

negatively charged and the neutrons are electrically
neutral
5
FIGURE 1-1 The Bohr model of an atom showing electrons in orbits and
around the nucleus, which consists of protons and neutrons. The “tails” on the
electrons indicate motion.
6
FIGURE 1-2 The two simplest atoms, hydrogen and helium.
7
-
-
-
+
-
-
-
8
Nucleus -
-
-
+
-
-
-
1. The Nucleus: The nucleus of an atom consists of two

types particles – protons and neutrons.
For a given atom, the number of protons in the
nucleus is normally equals to the number of orbiting
9 electrons
Nucleus -
-
-
+
-
-
-
2. Atoms are electrically neutral: Since the protons and orbital

electrons are equal in number, their equal and opposite charge
will neutralize each other electrically. Therefore atoms are
normally electrically neutral.
 An electron has a negative charge equal to 1.6 X 10 -19
coulomb and
a neutron has no charge at all.
 The mass of an electron is 9.1 X 10-31 Kg
10
Nucleus -
-
-
+
-
-
-
3. Atoms can be converted into ions:

If an atom losses an electron then the number of
protons becomes higher than the number of
electrons. Therefore the atom becomes positively
charged and it is referred to as a positive ion.
11
Nucleus -
-
-
+
-
-
-
3. Atoms can be converted into ions:

Similarly if an atom gains an additional electron
then it becomes negatively charged and called
as negative ion.
12
Outermost orbit
- - -
- - -
Nucleus
- + -
Electrons
- - -
- - - Valence electrons
Electron orbits or shell:

 Electrons can occupy only certain orbital rings or shells which are at a fixed distance
from the nucleus.
 Each shell can contain only a particular number of electrons.
 In general a shell can contain at the most 2n 2 number of electrons where “n” is the shell
number.
 The exception for this rule is that the outermost shell cannot contain more than eight
13 electrons.
Outermost orbit
- - -
- - -
Nucleus
- + -
- Electrons
- -
- Valence electrons
- -
Valence shell and valence electrons:

 The outermost shell is known as the valence shell and the electrons in it are
called as valence electrons.
 These valence electrons determine the electrical characteristics of each
particular atom.
 The valence shell may be completely filled or partially filled of valence
14 electrons.
Introduction to semiconductor
The materials such as copper, aluminium etc. are good
conductors of electricity.
While the materials such as wood , glass, mica etc. are

bad conductors of electricity and are called insulators.
There is another class of materials, whose conductivity

i.e. ability to carry electricity, lies between that of
conductors and insulators. Such materials are called
semiconductors.
Germanium (Ge) and Silicon (Si) are two well known

15
semiconductor.
The structure of Silicon (Si) Atom
Outermost orbit
- - -
- - -
Nucleus
- +14 -
- Electrons
- -
- Valence electrons
- -
Silicon Atom
A silicon atom consists of 14 protons and 14 neutrons
inside the nucleus and 14 revolving electrons.
These 14 electrons are distributed among different
16 shell.
+14
-
2
Silicon Atom:-
 The first shell contains 2 electrons ( 2n2 = 2 since n=1 first
shell)
17
-
- - -
- +14 -
- - 2 -
- 8
Silicon Atom
 The first shell contains 2 electrons ( 2n2 = 2 since n=1 first shell)
 The second shell contains 8 electrons ( 2n2 = 8 since n=2 second
shell)
18
Outermost orbit
- - -
- - -
Nucleus
- +14 -
- Electrons
- 2 -
- Valence electrons
- - 8
Silicon Atom
 The first shell contains 2 electrons ( 2n2 = 2 since n=1 first
shell)
 The second shell contains 8 electrons ( 2n2 = 8 since n=2
second shell)
19
 While third shell which is called as valence shell contains 4
The structure of Germanium (Ge) Atom
- Nucleus
+32
- 2
Germanium Atom
The first shell contains 2 electrons ( 2n2 = 2 since n=1 first
shell)
20
-
- - - Nucleus
- +32 -
- 2
- -
- 8
Germanium Atom
shell)
21
- -
- -
- -
-
- - -
- - Nucleus
- - +32 - -
- - Electrons
- - 2 -
-
- 8 -
-
- -
- 18
Germanium Atom
shell)
22  The third shell contains 18 electrons ( 2n2 = 18 since n=3 third
-
- -
- - Outermost orbit
- -
-
- - -
- - Nucleus
- - - +32 - - Valence electrons

-
- - Electrons
- - 2 -
-
- 8 -
-
- -
- 18
-
Germanium Atom 4
 The second shell contains 8 electrons ( 2n2 = 8 since n=2 second shell)
 The third shell contains 18 electrons ( 2n2 = 18 since n=3 third shell)
 And the outermost shell contains 4 valence electrons.
23
 Silicon as well as Germanium atoms contains 4 electrons in the
valence shell.
 If there are 4 electrons in the outermost orbit the semiconductor
material is called as Tetravalent semiconductor or pure or Intrinsic
semiconductor
24
Ionization
25
Ionization
 When in equilibrium, an atom is electrically neutral, as the
number of protons is exactly equal to the number of electrons.
26
Ionization
When in equilibrium, an atom is electrically neutral,
as the number of protons is exactly equal to the
number of electrons.
But if the electrons from the outermost orbit (valence

electron) is extracted, then the atom does not remain
electrically neutral.
27
Ionization

Since it has lost one electron, it has lost some negative

charge. So the atom becomes positively charged and
called as positive ion.
28
Ionization
On the other hand, addition of an electron to an atom
will convert it into negative ion.
29
Ionization
On the other hand, addition of an electron to an atom
will convert it into negative ion.
The process of conversion from an electrically neutral
30 to an ion is called as Ionization.
Concept of energy levels
Energy levels increases as
- we away from the nucleus
Shell 1
Lowest energy -
- - Valence orbit shell
has highest energy level
- - - + - - -
nucleus - -
-
-
 Each electronic orbit has an energy level associate with it.
 The electrons in the inner orbits are more closely bound to the
nucleus and posses less energy.
 As we move towards the valence shell, the binding force
between nucleus and electrons reduces and the electrons posses
31 higher energy.
Free electrons
Shell 1
Lowest energy -
- - - + - -
nucleus - - - Free electron

-
-
 The valence electrons are very loosely bound with the nucleus .
 If an external energy is given to them, they can easily break
away from the nucleus and become free.
 Such electron which are free from the force of attraction of
nucleus are called as free electrons
32
Free electrons
Shell 1
Lowest energy -
- - - + - -

-
-
 These free electrons posses an energy which is higher than that
of valence electrons.
 The electric current flows due to these free electrons and they
are said to be in the conduction band.
 The energy level of conduction band is higher than that of
33
valence shell
Energy Bands
1st Band -
2nd Band has highest energy level
- - - + - -
Valence band
-
Energy -
conduction
Conduction band
Band
Forbidden energy gap
EG
Valence Band Valence band
2nd Band 2nd Band

1st Band 1st Band
34 Edge of the nucleus
Energy Bands
Energy
conduction
Conduction band
Band
2nd Band 2nd Band

1st Band 1st Band
Edge of the nucleus
• The electrons in the first shell will require the highest amount of
energy for their extraction. Therefore the first shell is said to have
lowest amount of energy associate with it
On the other hand, the valence electrons require the lowest amount
of energy for their extraction. Hence valence shells are said to have
35
the highest amount of energy.
Energy Bands
Energy
conduction
Conduction band
Band
EG
2nd Band 2nd Band

1st Band 1st Band
Edge of the nucleus
Valence Band :
 The valence band corresponds to the valence electrons present
in the different atoms of the materials.

36  Energy associates with the valence band is the second highest
as shown in figure
Energy Bands
Energy
conduction
Conduction band
Band
EG
2nd Band 2nd Band

1st Band 1st Band
Edge of the nucleus
• Conduction Band :
Conduction band has the highest energy associated with it
The electrons in the conduction band are the free electrons i.e.
The electrons which are disconnected from their
respective atoms.
Conduction band electrons are actually responsible for the flow of
37
current . More number of electrons in the conduction band more
Energy Bands
Energy
conduction
Conduction band
Band
EG
2nd Band 2nd Band

1st Band 1st Band
Edge of the nucleus
Forbidden Gap :
As shown in figure the forbidden gap is the energy gap that separates the
conduction and valence band.
No electrons can normally exist in the forbidden gap. For any given type of
material the forbidden gap may be large, small or even nonexistent.
The materials are classified as conductors, insulators and

38
semiconductors based on the relative width of the forbidden gap.
Jump from valence band to conduction band
 If the valence band electrons can jump across the forbidden
gap and enter into the conduction band then they will become
free electrons and be available for conduction.
 The valence electrons can jump if we provide additional energy

to them . This additional energy can be supplied by increasing
the temperature or focusing light on the material etc.
 This is the reason why conductivity of certain materials

increase with increase in temperature.
39
Let us understand conductor, insulators and semiconductors
based on their energy band diagram
Conductors
 Conductors are materials which allows the current to flow very easily.
This is due to the large number of free electrons present in the
conductors.
 From the energy band diagram of conductors shown in figure, for
metals like copper, aluminium etc. there is no “forbidden gap” present
between the valence and conduction band.
 Therefore even at room temperature, a large number of free electrons
are present and available for conduction.
Conduction
Band
Conduction band
Bands
overlap
Valence band
Valence
Band
40
Insulators
 The energy band diagram of an insulator is shown in figure
 The forbidden gap between the conduction band valence band
is extremely wide.
 Normally the valence electrons cannot jump that far and enter
into the conduction band. Therefore conduction those not takes
place and these materials are known as insulators
Conduction
Band Conduction band
Large
forbidden EG = 6 eV
gap
Valence
41 Valence band Band
Semiconductors
 Semiconductor have the conduction properties which are in
between those of conductors and insulators.
 We can say that semiconductors are neither conductors nor
insulators. Forbidden gap is very narrow as compared to that of
the insulator.
 The forbidden gap for Silicon EG = 1.1 eV
 For Germanium EG = 0.72 eV
Conduction Conduction band
Band
small
forbidden EG = 1 eV
gap
Valence
Valence band Band
42
Conductor Insulator Semiconductor
Conduction
Conduction Band Conduction
Band Band
Bands Large
small
overlap forbidden forbidden

EG = 1 eV
gap
gap
Valence Valence
Band Valence Band
Band
43
Why silicon is more widely used semiconductor
material
 The valence electrons in germanium are in the fourth shell
while those in silicon are in the third shell, i.e. closer to the
nucleus.
 This means that the germanium valence electrons are at higher
energy levels than those in Silicon.
 Hence germanium valence electrons will need smaller amount
of additional energy to escape from the atom.
 Due to this, the germanium produces more number electron
hole pairs than silicon.
 Hence the leakage current is more in germanium than that of
silicon.
 This property make germanium more unstable at high
temperatures, therefore silicon is more widely used material
44 than germanium.
Types of Semiconductors
The semiconductors are classified into two categories
as:
Intrinsic semiconductors and

Extrinsic semiconductors.
45
Intrinsic Semiconductors
Intrinsic means pure, so intrinsic semiconductors are
the semiconductors in their purest possible form.
The presence of impurity (i.e. atoms of other material)

is as low as 1 part in 100 million parts of the
semiconductor atoms.
The intrinsic semiconductors are insulators or very
very poor conductors, at room temperature.
Silicon and germanium are intrinsic semiconductor
46
Extrinsic Semiconductors
Extrinsic means impure, so we can obtain the extrinsic
semiconductors from intrinsic ones by adding
impurities to them.
Impurity is nothing but some other material. The
process of adding impurities is called as “ doping”
Due to doping, the conductivity of the semiconductor
increases.
Extrinsic semiconductor are of two types:
 n- type semiconductor
 p- type semiconductor
The type of extrinsic semiconductor (n or p) depends
47 on the type of impurity ( or dopant ) being used
Intrinsic Semiconductors two dimensional
representation
We know that in a silicon or germanium atom there
are four valence electrons
Si
48
representation
Si
49
representation
 We know that in a silicon or germanium atom there are four
valence electrons
 In an intrinsic Si or Ge crystal these four valence electrons are
bound to four adjacent atoms
Si Si Si
Covalent Bond
Si Si Si
Si Si Si
50
representation
 Each one of the four valence electrons in each atoms forms a
bond with a valence electrons from the adjoining atom as
shown. This bond is nothing but sharing of electrons. These
bonds are Known as covalent bond
Si Si Si
Covalent Bond
Si Si Si
Si Si Si
51
representation
Si Si Si
Covalent Bond
Si Si Si
52
Conduction in intrinsic semiconductor
The intrinsic semiconductor behaves like perfect

insulator at the absolute zero temperature.
But the behavior changes with increase in

temperature. At around the room temperature,
electrons becomes available for conduction and
current can flow.
53
Conduction in intrinsic semiconductor
The intrinsic semiconductor behaves like perfect

insulator at the absolute zero temperature.
But the behavior changes with increase in

temperature. At around the room temperature,
electrons becomes available for conduction and
current can flow.
FIGURE Creation of electron-hole pairs in a silicon crystal. Electrons in the conduction band
are free.
54
FIGURE Electron-hole pairs in a silicon crystal. Free electrons are being
generated continuously while some recombine with holes.
55
Generation of electron-hole pairs at increased
temperature
At increase in temperature many valence electrons
will absorb the thermal energy, breaks the covalent
bonds and go into the conduction band
Thus they becomes free for conduction. When an
electron break a covalent bond and becomes free, a
vacancy is created in the broken covalent bond.
Free electron
Si Si Si Si
hole
56
temperature
 This vacancy is called as “hole”. Thus corresponding to every
free electron, hole is created.
 Therefore the number of free electrons are generated due to
increased in temperature is exactly equal to the number of holes.
 As the free electrons and holes are generated in pairs they are
called as thermally generated electron hole pair.
Free electron
Si Si Si Si
hole
57
temperature
 The electrons and holes both can operate as charge carriers. The
holes is said to have a positive charge as it is nothing but absence
of an electron.
 Thus the conductivity of an intrinsic semiconductor thus

increases due to the increase in temperature.
Free electron
Si Si Si Si
hole
58
Recombination
The free electrons in the conduction band, when come

across the hole will jump into the hole.
This process is called as the recombination process
Free electron
Si Si Si Si
hole
59
Recombination
 When a conduction band electron return back to valence band,

and recombines with a hole, it release energy equal to the
energy gap between conduction and valence bands.
 This principle is used in the light emitting diode (LED)
Free electron
Si Si Si Si
hole
60
FIGURE Hole current in intrinsic silicon.
61
Electron and hole current
Electron Current
 As we apply voltage across a piece of intrinsic semiconductor
material, the thermally generated free electrons in the
conduction band are attracted towards the positive end
 The current is constitute due to the movement of free electrons

is called as electron current as shown in figure
Si Si Si
62
Hole Current
Si Si Si
63
Hole Current
Si Si Si
64
Hole Current
Si Si Si
Si Si Si
65
Hole Current
Si Si Si
Si Si Si
66
Hole Current
Si Si Si
Si Si Si
67 Hole movement electron movement

Total current
 The flow of an electric current is due to the movement of
electrons in the conduction band and movement of holes in the
valence band.
 Total current = electron current + hole current
Si Si Si
68
FIGURE Electron current in intrinsic silicon is produced by the
movement of thermally generated free electrons.
69
Semiconductors have a negative temperature
coefficient of resistivity
 As the temperature rises, more number of electrons will absorb

the thermal energy to break the covalent bonds and contributes to
the number of free carriers.
 The increase in the number of electrons and holes will increase

the conductivity of the semiconductor and results in the lower
resistance level.
 Thus the resistance of the semiconductor decreases with increase

in temperature. Therefore they are said to have a “ negative
temperature coefficient” of resistivity.
70
Conventional current
 The current flow from positive to negative is referred to as
conventional current.
 Under the influence of the external dc source or battery the free
electrons in the semiconductor slab which are negatively charged
will attracted towards the positive terminal and holes being
positively charged will be attracted towards the negative terminal
of the external battery.
Electron flow
h - e
h - e
h - e
Semiconductor slab
External DC source
71
Extrinsic Semiconductors
Doping Process
 In the process of doping, impurities are added to the pure
Silicon or Germanium.
 The impurities are the material used to dope the intrinsic
semiconductor materials. These materials can be of two types:
 1. Donor impurity 2. Acceptor impurity
72
Donor impurity
The material which is being used as impurity in the

process of doping is called as “dopant”.
When the dopant is Pentavalent atom i.e. the atom
containing five valence electrons then it is called as
the “ donor impurity” and the doping is called as “
donor doping”
Donor doping is used to manufacture n-type extrinsic
semiconductor.
73
Acceptor impurity
When the dopant is trivalent atom i.e. the atom

consisting of only three valence electrons, then it is
called as the “ acceptor impurity” and the doping is
called “acceptor doping”.
Acceptor doping is used to manufacture p-type
extrinsic semiconductor.
74
n-type semiconductor
The n–type semiconductor is formed by adding small

amount of Pentavalent impurity to the pure Si or Ge
material which act as base material.
The Pentavalent atom is the one which has five

valence electrons.
The examples of Pentavalent materials are :

Antimony (Sb)(51),
Arsenic (As) (33) and
Phosphorous (P)(15).
75
n-type semiconductor formation of covalent bond
When a pentavalent impurity such as Arsenic is added
to the intrinsic semiconductor, four valence electrons
of Arsenic atom form four covalent bonds with four
valence electrons of the neighboring silicon atom
Si Si Si
Fifth valence electron
Of Arsenic
(Extra Free electron)
Si As Si
Covalent Bond
Si Si Si
76
FIGURE Pentavalent impurity atom in a silicon crystal structure. An antimony
(Sb) impurity atom is shown in the center. The extra electron from the Sb atom
becomes a free electron.
77
majority and minority carriers in the n-type semiconductor
 A large number of free electrons are present along with a small
number of thermally generated holes in an n-type semiconductor.
 So the conduction largely takes place due to the free electrons.

Therefore the free electrons are called “ majority carrier” and holes
are known as “ minority carrier”.
 When an external DC voltage is applied to the n-type semiconductor

material, the free electrons move towards the positive terminal of the
source and hole move towards the negative end
Electron flow
e
e - e - e - e -
- e e h
- -
h e - e -
e
- N-type material e
-
- e - e
78
P-type semiconductor
The P–type semiconductor is formed by adding small

amount of trivalent impurity to the pure Si or Ge
material which act as base material.
The trivalent atom is the one which has three valence

electrons.
The examples of trivalent materials are :

Boron(B)(5),
Gallium(Ga)(31) and
Indium(In)(49).
79
p-type semiconductor formation of covalent bond
When a trivalent impurity such as Gallium is added to
the intrinsic semiconductor, three valence electrons of
gallium atom form three covalent bonds with three
valence electrons of the neighboring silicon atom
Si Si Si
Hole created due to
Incomplete bond
Si Ga Si
Covalent Bond Broken Covalent Bond
Si Si Si
80
FIGURE 1-16 Trivalent impurity atom in a silicon crystal structure. A boron (B)
impurity atom is shown in the center.
81
majority and minority carriers in the p-type
semiconductor
Electron flow
e - + +
+ +
e - + +h
+ h + +
P-type material
+ +
82
p-n junction
P-type semiconductor and an n-type semiconductor

are joined together with the help of special fabrication
technique to form a p-n junction
- - - + + +
- - - + + +
- - + +
n-type P-type
semiconductor semiconductor
83
p-n junction
P-type semiconductor and an n-type semiconductor are

joined together with the help of special fabrication
technique to form a p-n junction
junction
- - - + + +
- - - + + +
- - + +
n-type p-type
84
p-n junction
Terminals are brought out for the external connection

with p-type semiconductor. The p-side is called as
anode and the n-side is called as cathode.
junction
- - - + + + Cathode
Anode
- - - + + +
- - + +
n-type p-type
85
p-n junction
Terminals are brought out for the external connection with

p-type semiconductor. The p-side is called as anode and the
n-side is called as cathode.
junction
- - - + + + cathode
Anode
- - - + + +
- - + +
N-type p-type
The p-n junction forms the basic semiconductor device called

86
diode
Diffusion
At the junction, one side has a high concentration of

holes and other side has high concentration of
electrons.
junction
Anode cathode
n-type p-type
87
Diffusion
At the junction, one side has a high concentration of

holes and other side has high concentration of
electrons.
Due to this a concentration gradient is created across
the junction, and a process of charge carrier as shown
in figure. junction
Anode cathode
88
formation of the depletion region
Note that no external voltage is applied between the
terminals of the p-n junction, hence the p-n junction is
said to be unbiased.
junction
- - + + cathode
Anode
- - + +
- - + +
89
The free electrons from “n” side will diffuse into the p
side and recombine with the holes present there.
junction
- - + + cathode
Anode
- - + +
- - + +
90
Each electron diffusing into the “p” side will leave
behind a positive immobile ion on the n-side.
When electron combine with a hole on the p-side, an
atom which accepts this electron, losses its electrically
neutral status and become a negative immobile ion as
shown in figure
junction
- - + + cathode
Anode
- - + +
- - + +
91
junction
- + cathode
Anode
n-type
semiconductor
92
junction
- - - + + + cathode
Anode
- - - + + +
- - - + + +
P-type n-type
93
junction
- - - + + + cathode
Anode
- - - + + +
- - - + + +
P-type n-type
94
junction
- - - + + + cathode
Anode
- - - + + +
- - - + + +
P-type n-type
95
shown in figure
junction
- - - + + + cathode
Anode
- - - + + +
- - - + + +
P-type n-type
96
shown in figure
junction
- - - + + + cathode
Anode
- - - + + +
- - - + + +
P-type n-type
97
shown in figure
junction
- - - + + + cathode
Anode
- - - + + +
- - - + + +
P-type n-type
98
shown in figure
junction
- - - + + + cathode
Anode
- - - + + +
- - - + + +
P-type n-type
99
shown in figure
Negative immobile ions junction Positive immobile ions
- - - + + + cathode
Anode
- - - + + +
- - - + + +
P-type n-type
100
Due to this recombination process, a large number of
positive ions accumulate near the junction on the n-
side and a large number of negative immobile ions
will accumulate on the p-side near the junction
Negative immobile ions Positive immobile ions

junction
- - + + cathode
Anode
- - + +
- - + +
P-type n-type
Depletion
region
101
The negatively charged ions on the p-side will start
repelling the electrons which attempts to diffuse into
the p-side and after some time the diffusion will stop
completely.
At this point the junction is said to have attained an
equilibrium.
junction
- - + + cathode
Anode
- - + +
- - + +
P-type n-type
Depletion
region
102
width of the depletion region
Practically the width of depletion region is very small
of the order of 0.5 to 1 micron where 1 micron is
equal to 1X10-6 meter.
Thus the depletion region is very thin as compared to
the width of p and n region.
junction
- - + + cathode
Anode
- - + +
- - + +
P-type n-type
Depletion
region
103
Barrier potential or junction potential
Due to the presence of immobile positive and
negative ions on opposite sides of the junction, an
electric field is created across the junction. This
electric field is known as the “barrier potential”.
The polarities of barrier potential are decided by the
type of immobile ions present on the two sides of the
junction.
- + Barrier potential or
Junction potential
- - + + cathode
Anode
- - + +
- - + +
P-type n-type
104 semiconductor Depletion semiconductor
region
Barrier potential or junction potential
Barrier potential is measured in volts. The barrier
potential for silicon is about 0.6 Volt whereas its value
for the Germanium is 0.2 Volt.
- + Barrier potential or
Junction potential
- - + + cathode
Anode
- - + +
- - + +
P-type n-type
semiconductor Depletion semiconductor
105
region
penetration of depletion region
The penetration of the depletion region into p or n-

side depends on the doping levels of those sides
If both these sides are equally doped then the
depletion region penetrates equally on both the sides
as shown in figure:
Both sides are equally doped
J
P N
Equal penetration
On both side
106

But if p-region is lightly doped as compared to the n-
region the penetration of depletion region is more on
the p-side as shown in figure
P-side is lightly doped
J
P N
More penetration
On p-side
107

Similarly if n-side is lightly doped as compared to p-
side then the depletion extend more into the n-side as
sown
n-side is lightly doped
J
P N
More penetration
On n-side
108
Both sides are equally doped P-side is lightly doped n-side is lightly doped
J J
J
P N P N P N
Equal penetration More penetration More penetration

On both side On p-side On n-side
Thus the depletion region always penetrates more on the side which is lightly
109 doped as compared to the other

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BASIC ELECTRONICS

UNIT – I : DIODES AND CIRCUITS

All matters is made up of atoms; and all atoms consist of

After completing this section, you should be able to:

Discuss the basic structure of atom.

Atoms contains tiny particles called protons, electrons

Protons are positively charged, electrons are

FIGURE 1-2 The two simplest atoms, hydrogen and helium.

1. The Nucleus: The nucleus of an atom consists of two

2. Atoms are electrically neutral: Since the protons and orbital

3. Atoms can be converted into ions:

3. Atoms can be converted into ions:

Electron orbits or shell:

Valence shell and valence electrons:

While the materials such as wood , glass, mica etc. are

There is another class of materials, whose conductivity

Germanium (Ge) and Silicon (Si) are two well known

- - - +32 - - Valence electrons

But if the electrons from the outermost orbit (valence

But if the electrons from the outermost orbit (valence

Since it has lost one electron, it has lost some negative

nucleus - - - Free electron

nucleus - - - Free electron

2nd Band 2nd Band

Valence Band Valence band

2nd Band 2nd Band

2nd Band 2nd Band

in the different atoms of the materials.

2nd Band 2nd Band

2nd Band 2nd Band

The materials are classified as conductors, insulators and

 The valence electrons can jump if we provide additional energy

 This is the reason why conductivity of certain materials

Conductor Insulator Semiconductor

overlap forbidden forbidden

Intrinsic semiconductors and

The presence of impurity (i.e. atoms of other material)

Silicon and germanium are intrinsic semiconductor

The intrinsic semiconductor behaves like perfect

But the behavior changes with increase in

The intrinsic semiconductor behaves like perfect

But the behavior changes with increase in

 Thus the conductivity of an intrinsic semiconductor thus

The free electrons in the conduction band, when come

 When a conduction band electron return back to valence band,

 This principle is used in the light emitting diode (LED)

 The current is constitute due to the movement of free electrons

67 Hole movement electron movement

 As the temperature rises, more number of electrons will absorb

 The increase in the number of electrons and holes will increase

 Thus the resistance of the semiconductor decreases with increase

 1. Donor impurity 2. Acceptor impurity

The material which is being used as impurity in the

When the dopant is trivalent atom i.e. the atom

The n–type semiconductor is formed by adding small

The Pentavalent atom is the one which has five

The examples of Pentavalent materials are :

 So the conduction largely takes place due to the free electrons.

 When an external DC voltage is applied to the n-type semiconductor