MUSCULOSKELETAL

SYSTEM
CONTENTS
• SKELETON
• AXIAL
• APPENDICULAR
• JOINTS
• MUSCLES
• IMPORTANT –LANDMARKS
SKELETON= TOTAL 206 BONES
APPENDICULAR
AXIAL 126
UPPER LIMB (64) LOWER LIMB
80 (62)
SJKULL-22 CLAVICLE- 02 HIPBONE- 02
EAR -6 SCAPULA- 02 FEMUR-02
HYOID BONE -1 HUMERUS-02 PATELLA-02
STERNUM-1 RADIUS-02 TIBIA-02
RIBS-24 ULNA-02 FIBULA-02
VERTEBRAE- 26 CARPAL-16 TARSAL-14
METACARPAL-10 METATARSAL-10
PHALANGES-28 PHALANGES-28

TOTAL -64 TOTAL 62

NAME THE BONES OF THE AXIAL SKELETAL
SYSTEM
• This includes bones in your
• skull (cranial and facial bones)
• ears, neck,
Back (vertebrae, sacrum
• and tailbone)
• and Ribcage
• (sternum and ribs)
NAME THE BONES OF APPENDICUALAR
SKELETON
• A total of 126 bones form
• the appendicular skeleton.
• The bones that contribute
• to the appendicular
• skeleton include the
• bones of the hands, feet
• upper extremity
• lower extremity
• shoulder girdle
• and pelvic bones.
AXIAL
SKELETON
BONES OF THE
SKULL
Bones of the Skull=
bones of cranium + bones of the face
• The skull is a bony structure
that supports the face and
forms a protective cavity for
the brain. It is made up of
many bones which are joined
by sutures (fibrous joints).
• The bones of the skull can be
considered as two groups:
those of the cranium (which
consist of the cranial roof and
cranial base) and those of
the face.
SKULL BONES- 08 FACIAL BONES- 14

• FRONTAL -01 NASAL -02

• PARIETAL-02 LACRIMAL-02
• OCCIPITAL-02 ZYGOMATIC-02
• TEMPORAL-02 NASAL CONCHA-02
• SPHENOID- 01 MAXILLA-02
• ETHMOID- 01 PALATINE- 02
◦
◦ VOMER -01
◦ MANDIBLE-01
 • IMMOVABLE JOINTS OF
THE SKULL
SUTURES • 4 MAJOR SUTURES
• LAMBDOID SUTURE-
Separates- occipital from
parietal bone
• CORONAL SUTURE- attaches
frontal to parietal bones, forms
the skull cap- culvaris which is
made of occipital,parietal and
temporal bones -
• SAGITTAL SUTURE –between
parietal bones from lambdoid
suture to coronal suture
• SQUAMOUS SUTURE- form
boundaries between temporal
and parietal bones
Bones of the base of skull
 • Functions of frontal bone: forms
the anterior cranium and upper
Frontal bone eye sockets
• Contains frontal sinuses
• ARTICULATION OF FRONTAL
BONE
• Parietal bone,Maxilla,Ethmoid,
• Lacrimal
• Zygomtic,Sphenoid,Nasal
bone,Metopic suture
• FORAMINA OF FRONTAL
BONE
• Supra-orbital foramen – for
blood sinnuses of
eyebrow,eyelids, and frontal
sinuses
• SUPRAORBITAL NOTCH
• An incomplete supra-orbital
foramen
 • 2 IN NUMBER
• FUNCTIONS OF PARIETAL
PARIETAL BONE BONE
• Forms part of superior and
lateral surfaces of the
cranium
• ARTICULATION OF
PARIETAL BONE
• Other parietal bone, occipital
bone, temporal bone, frontal
bone and sphenoid bone,
• MARKS OF PARIETAL BONE
• Superior and inferior
temporal lines for
temporalis muscle
attachment ,grooves for
cranial blood vessels
 • FUNCTIONS
• Forms posterior and inferior surfaces of
OCCIPITAL BONE the cranium
• ARTICULATIONS OF OCCIPITAL
BONE
• Parietal bone, temporal bone, sphenoid
bone, 1st cervical vertebrae
• MARKS OF OCCIPITAL BONE
• External occipital protrubernace
• External occipital crest- to attach
ligaments
• Occipital condyles- articulates with
the neck
• Inferior and superior nuchal
lines- attach muscles and ligaments
• FORAMINA OF OCCIPITAL BONE
• FORAMEN MAGNUM – connects
cranial and spinal cavities
• JUGULAR FORAMEN – jugular vein
• HYPOGLOSAL CANALS –
hypoglossal nerves
Structures passing through foramen magnum

V-VERTBRAL ARTERY
A-ANTERIOR SPINAL ARTERY
M –MENINGEAL BRANCHES OF
CERVICAL NERVES
P- POSTERIOR SPINAL
ARTERIES
S- SPINAL PART OF ACESSORY
NERVE
A- ALAR AND APICAL
LIGAMENTS OF
T- TECTORIAL MEMBRANE
M- MEDUALA OBLANGATA
 • FUNCTIONS OF
TEMPORAL BONE
TEMPORAL BONE • Forms lateral wall of
cranium and zygomatic
arches
• Protects inner ear
• Attaches muscles of jaw
and head
• ARTICULATION OF
TEMPORAL BONE
• Zygomatic, sphenoid,
parietal, occipital,
mandible
• MARKS OF
TEMPORAL BONE
 • MARKS OF TEMPORAL BONE
TEMPORAL BONE • SQUAMOUS PART-
• MANDIBULAR FOSSA- articulates
with mandible
• ZYGOMATIC PROCESS- inferior to
squamous part, articualtes with
zygomatic bone, forms zygomatic arch-
cheebone
• MASTOID PROCESS –for muscle
attachment ,contains mastoid air cells
connected to middle ear
• STYLOID PROCESS – to attach
tendons and ligament of hyoid, tongue
and pharynx
• PETROUS PART – enclose structures
of inner ear
• AUDITORY OSSICLES- 3 tiny bones
of middle ear that transfer sound from
tympanic membrane to inner ear
 • FORAMINA OF
TEMPORAL BONE
TEMPORAL BONE • CAROTID CANAL- for
internal carotid artery
• FORAMEN LACERUM-
carotid and small arteries
• EXTERNAL
ACOUSTIC MEATUS-
ends at tympanic
membrane
• STYLOMASTOID
FORAMEN- for FACIAL
NERVE
• INTERNAL ACOUSITC
MEATUS For BLOOD
VESSELS AND NERVES
OF INNER EAR, FACIAL
NERVE
SPHENOID BONE
SPHENOID BONE – 1 IN NUMBER
• FUNCTIONS OF SPHENOID BONE
• Unites cranial and facial bones
• Contains sphenoidal sinuses
• ARTICULATIONS OF SPHENOID BONE
• Ethmoid, frontal, occipital, parietal, temporal, palatine,
zygomatic, maxilla, vomer
• MARKS OF SPHENOID BONE
• Sphenoid body – at the centre
• Sella turcica- saddle shaped structure superiorly
• Hypophyseal fossa- depression in sella turcica hold pituitary gland
• Sphenoidal sinuses- on either side, inferior to sella
• Greater wings- part of cranial floor and posterior wall of orbit
• Lesser wings- anterior to sella
 • FORAMINA OF
SPHENOID BONE- SPHENOID
• OPTIC CANALS – FOR
FORAMINA OPTIC NERVES
• SUPERIOR ORBITAL
FISSURE – FOR
BLOOD VESSELS AND
NERVES OF FACE
• FORAMEN
ROTUNDUM – BLOOD
VESSESL AND NERVES
OF FACE
• FORAMEN OVALE –
FOR BLOOD VESSES
AND NERVES OF FACE
• FORAMEN
SPINOSUM – FOR
BLOOD VESSELD ANS
NERVES OF JAW
 • ARTICULATIONS OF
ETHMOID BONE ETHMOID BONE
• Frontal bone, sphenoid, nasal,
lacrimal, palatine, maxillary,
inferior nasal conchae,vomer
• 3 PARTS OF ETHMOID BONE
• Cribriform plate
• Floor of cranium
• Roof of nasal cavity
• Crista galli
• 2 LATERAL MASSES –ethmoid
labyrinth, superior nasal conchae
• PERPENDICULAR PLATE-
parts of nasal septum
• OLFACTORY FORAMEN- for
OLFACTORY NERVE I cribriform
plate
SACRUM
FACIAL BONES
FACIAL
BONES

MRS – (MAXILLA)
ZOYA - ZYGOMATIC)
LOVES –(LACRIMAL)
INDIAN – (INFERIRO NASAL CONCHA)
NASTHA &- (NASAL)
PASTA – ( PALATINE )
VERY –( VOMER)
MUCH –( MANDIBLE )
 • MAXILLA- (2 IN NUMBER)
• FUNCTION

FACIAL BONES OF
• Support upper teeth
• Form inferior orbital rim
• Lateral margins of external nares
SKULL •
•
Upper jaw and hard palate
Contains maxillary sinuses
• ARTICULATION
• Frontal bones, ethmoid, all other facial bones of
mandible
• MARKS
• ORBITAL RIM –protects the eye
• ANTERIOR NASAL SPINE –attaches
cartilagenous anterior nasal septum
• ALVEOLAR PROCESS – border of the mouth
and upper teeh
• PALATINE PROCESS – hard palate –roof of
the mouth
• MAXILLARY SINUSES- to lighten bones
• NASOLACRIMAL CANAL – protects lacrimal
sac and nasolacrimal ducts
• FORAMEN OF THE MAXILA
• INFERIOR ORBITAL FORAMEN – for
sensory nerve to brain via foramen rotundum
• INFERIOR ORBITAL FISSURE – for cranial
nerves nad blood vessels
 • FUNCTIONS –forms
posterior part of hard palate,
PALATINE BONES floor of orbits
• ARTICULATIONS
• With palatine bones, maxilla,
sphenoid, inferior nasal
conchae, vomer
• Division
• Horizontal plate- posterior
part of hard palate
• Perpendicular plate- from
horizontl plate to orbital
process of orbit
• FORAMINA
• Many in lateral portion of
horizontal plate
• For small blood vessels and
nerves of the roof of the
mouth
 • FUNCTIONS
• Support the bridge of
NASAL BONES the nose
• Connects to cartilage
of the distal part of
the external nares
• ARTICULATIONS
• With other nasal
bones
• Ethmoid bones
• Frontal bones
• maxillae
VOMER
• FUNCTIONS
• Inferior portion of
bony nasal septum
• ARTICULATION
S
• Sphenoid
• Ethmoid
• Palatine
• Maxillae
• Cartilagenous part
of nasal septum
INFERIOR NASAL CONCHAE
• FUNCTIONS
• To CREATE AIR turbulence
in nasal cavity
• To increase the epithelial
surface area
• To warm and humidify
inhaled air
• ARTICULATIONS
• Ethmoid
• Maxillae
• Palatine
• Lacrimal bones
ZYOMATIC BONES
• FUNCTIONS
• Contribute to the rim and lateral
wall of the orbit
• Forms part of zygomatic arch
• ARTICULATIONS
• sphenoid
• Frontal bone
• Temporal bone
• Maxillae
• TEMPORAL PROCESS –meets
the zygomatic process of temporal
bone
• ZYGOMATICOFACIAL
FORAMEN –sensory nerves of
cheeks
LACRIMAL BONES • FUNCTIONS –
• smallest facial bones
• Forms part of
medial wall of orbit
• ARTICULATIONS
• Frontal bone
• Maxillae
• Ethmoid
Describe the mandible (2 marks)
 • FUNCTIONS

MANDIBLE
• Forms the lower jaw
• ARTICULATIONS OF MANDIBLE
• Madibular fossa of temporal bone
• MARKS
• BODY OF MANDIBLE – horizontal portion
• ALVEOLAR PROCESS – support of lower
teeth
• MENTAL PROTRUBERANCE – attaches
facial muscles
• MYOLOHYOID LINE – insertion of
myolohyoid muscles
• RAMUS – ascending from mandicular angle
on either side
• CONDYLAR PRPOCESS – articulates with
temporal bone at temporomandibular joint
• CORONOID PROCESS –insertion point for
temporalis muscle
• MANDIBULAR NOTCH – separate
condylar and coronoid process
• FORAMINA OF THE MANDIBLE -
• MENTAL FORAMINA – for sensory nerves of
lips and chin
• MANDIBULAR FORAMEN – entrance to
mandibular canal fro blood vessels and nerves
of lower teeth
VERTEBRAL
COLUMN
AXIAL SKELETON
• HYOID BONE
• FUNCTIONS OF HYOID BONE –
• supports larynx
• Attaches muscles of the larynx, pharynx and tongue
• Connects lesser horns to styloid process of temporal bone
• MARKS OF HYOID BONE
• Attaches muscles of larynx, tongue and pharynx
• GREATER HORNS
• Supports larynx
• Attaches muscles of tongue
• LESSER HORNS
• Attach stylohyoid ligaments
• Support hyoid and larynx
VERTEBRAL COLUMN
• SPINE- OR –VERTEBRAL COLUMN
• Protects spinal cord
• Supports head and body
• 26 bones- 24 vertebrae, the sacrum and coccyx
• VERTEBRAE
• THE NECK – 7 cervical vertebrae
• UPPER BACK – 12 thoracic vertebrae
• LOWER BACK – 5 lumbar vertebrae
• SACRUM AND COCCYX – 5th lumbar articulates
with sacrum and sacrum articulates with cocyx
4 CURVATURE OF VERTEBRAL COLUMN
• CERVICAL CURVE
• THORACIC CURVE
• LUMBAR CURVE
• SACRAL CURVE

• THORACIC AND SACRAL CURVES- are called primary curves-

present during foetal development
• Also called accomodation curves- accommodate internal organs
• LUMBAR AND CERVICAL CURVES
• Are called secondary curves (appear after birth)
• Also called compensation curves (shift weight for upright
posture)
STRUCTURE OF VERTEBRAE
• VERTEBRAL BODY- CENTRUM- transfers eight along the spine
• VERTEBRAL ARCH- posterior margin of vertebral foramen
• Pedicles – walls of vertebral arch
• Laminae – roof of vertebral arch
• Spinous proces- projection when vertebral laminae fuse
• Transverse process- projection when laminae join pedicles
• ARTICULAR PROCESS – lateral projections between laminae and
pedicles- there are superior and inferior articular process- have articular
facets on articular facets
• VERTEBRAL FORAMINA – intervertebral foramina- gaps between
pedicle of adjacent vertebrae, for nerve connections to spinal cord
• VERTEBRAL CANAL - formed by vertebral foramina ,encloses spinal
cord
• INTERVERTEBRAL DISCS- are pads of fibous cartilage,separate the
vertebral bodies, absorb shocks
CERVICAL • 7 IN NUMBER
• C1, C2 AND C7 ARE NOT TYPICAL –SO
VERTEBRAE CALLED ATYPICAL VERTBRAE- ATLAS
AND AXIS
• C3, 4,5,6 ARE TYPICAL
• TYPICAL – BODY IS SMALLER, VERTEBRAL
FORAMEN IS LARGER AND TRIANGULAR
• THE SPINOUS PROCESS IS BIFID
• THE TRANSVERSE PROCESS HAS
FORAMEN TRANSVERSARIUM FOR
VERTEBRAL ARTERIES AND VEINS
• It has No body, No spine. • It has
2 lateral masses connected
together by small anterior arch &
long posterior arch. • Each
lateral mass has articular surface
on its upper and lower aspects.
The superior articular surface :
The upper articular surface is
kidney-shaped Articulates
with the occipital condyles of the
skull.  It forms the Atlanto-
Occipital joints. This joint allows
you to nod “say Yes”.
ATLAS • The inferior articular surface
of the atlas: is circular and
articulates with the axis. It
forms the 2 lateral Atlanto-
Axial joints. This joint
together with the joint
between the dens of axis and
the anterior small arch of atlas
allow you to “Say No “ lateral
rotation of the face.
•
REGIONS OF VERTEBRAL COLUMN
• CERVICAL – C-
• THORACIC – T
• LUMBAR- L
• SACRAL –S
• COCCYGEAL – CO

• VERTEBRAE- of each region – have

charecteristics determined by functions
• Vertebrae are numbered from top(supeior) to
bottom (inferior)
WRITE AND LABEL PARTS OF VERTEBRAL
COLUMN
CERVICAL
• small body
VERTEBRAE • Large vertebral foramen (largest part of spinal
cord)
• Concave superior surface
• Slopes posterior to anterior
• C1 –ATLAS – has no spinous process
• All others have short spinous process
• Tip of each spinous process is BIFID
• TRANSVERSE PROCESS
• Are fused , encircle transverse foramina –protect
arteries and veins
• ATLAS –C1 – articulates with occipital
condyles of skull, no bodoy or spinous process ,
large round foramen with anterior and posterior
arches
• AXIS – C2 – supports atlas ,heavy spinous
process to attach muscles of head and neck
• VERTEBRA PROMINENTS – transition to
thoracic vertebrae, long spinous process with a
broad tubercle, large transverse process
• LIGAMENTUM NUCHAE –elastic ligament
extends from C7 TO SKULL
THORACIC
VERTEBRAE • T1-T2
• Have heart shaped bodies
• Larger bodies than c1-c7
• Smaller vertebral foramen than
c1 to c7
• Long slender spinous process
• Dorsolateral surface of body has
costal facets which articulate
with heads of ribs.
▫ T1- T10
▫ HAVE TRANSVERSE costal facets
▫ Thick transverse process for rib
articulation
▫ T1 –T8 - articulate with 2 pairs of
ribs at superior and inferior facets
▫ T 9-T11 – articulate with 1 PAIR i
of ribs
▫ T10-T12 –transition to lumbar
vertebrae
▫ TRANSVERSE PROCESS –
▫ Slender
▫ Project dorsolaterally
▫ SPINOUS PROCESS
▫ Short heavy
▫ For attachment of lower back
muscles
INTERVETEBRAL
DISC

THE INTERVETEBRAL DISC

consists
A central nucleus pulposus (NP)
A peripheral annulus fibrosus (AF)
Intervertebral disc

• It IS A cushion of fibrocartilage and the principal

joint between two vertebrae in the spinal
column.
• allow the spine to be flexible without sacrificing
a great deal of strength
• provide a shock-absorbing effect within the
spine and prevent the vertebrae from grinding
together
HIP BONE
 Write notes on INNOMINATE BONE
Together, the ilium, pubis and ischium
form a cup-shaped socket known as
the acetabulum (literal meaning in Latin
is ‘vinegar cup‘). The head of the femur
articulates with the acetabulum to form
the hip joint.

The ischial tuberosity (or tuberosity of the

ischium, tuber ischiadicum), also known
colloquially as the sit bones or sitz bones,
or as a pair the sitting bones, is a large
swelling posteriorly on the superior ramus
of the ischium. It marks the lateral
boundary of the pelvic outlet.
Hip boneThe hip bone is comprised of the three
parts; the ilium, pubis and ischium. Prior
to puberty, the triradiate
cartilage separates these parts – and
fusion only begins at the age of 15-17.
Innominate bone /Hip bone/pelvic girdle

The Hip Bone

The hip bones (innominate bones, pelvic bones) are two irregularly shaped bones that form
part of the pelvic girdle
, which is the bony structure that connects the axial skeleton to the lower limbs.

There are three major articulations on the hip

bones:
The sacroiliac joint connects to the sacrum. The articulation between the left and right hip
bones I
is known as pubic symphysis. The hip joint is an articulation with the head of the femur.

The hip bone is divided into three sections:

the ilium, pubis, and ischium

.The triradiate cartilage separates these parts prior to puberty, and fusion
occurs only between the ages of 15 and 17.
The acetabulum is a cup-shaped socket formed by the ilium, pubis, and ischium
The hip joint is formed by the femoral head articulating with the acetabulum.
Pelvic .
The pubis is the hip bone's most anterior portion. It
girdle – has a body, a superior ramus, and an inferior ramus
(ramus = branch).
pubis The pubic body is medially located and articulates
with the opposite pubic body at the pubic symphysis.
It has a rounded thickening (the pubic crest) on its
superior aspect that extends laterally as the pubic
tubercle
. Superior pubic ramus - a lateral extension of the
body that forms part of the acetabulum
. The inferior pubic ramus extends towards the
ischium. The superior and inferior rami enclose a
portion of the obturator foramen, through which
the obturator nerve, artery, and vein travel to the
lower limb.
-Pelvic girdle The ilium is the widest and largest of the three

- Ilium hip bone parts, and it is located superiorly

. The ilium's body is the superior part of the
acetabulum (acetabular roof).
The ilium expands to form the wing
immediately above the acetabulum (or ala)
The ilium's wing has two surfaces:
The inner surface is concave, resulting in the
iliac fossa (site of origin of the iliacus muscle).
The external surface (gluteal surface) is
convex and has attachments to the gluteal
muscles.
The iliac crest is formed by thickening the
superior margin of the wing. It stretches from
the
anterior superior iliac spine to the posterior
superior iliac spine (PSIS).
The greater sciatic notch is an indentation on
the posterior aspect of the ilium.
Pelvic
The ischium is located on the posteroinferior side of the
girdle - hip bone. It, like the pubis, is made up of a body, an
inferior ramus, and a superior ramus.
Ischium The ischiopubic ramus is formed by the union of the
inferior ischial ramus and the inferior pubic ramus, and it
encloses a portion of the obturator foramen. The ischial
tuberosities are formed by the posterorinferior aspect of
the ischium, and it is on these tuberosities that our body
weight falls when we sit.
The ischial spine is a posteromedial bone projection near
the junction of the superior ramus and body.
The ischium is connected by two important ligaments:
The sacrospinous ligament connects the ischial spine to
the sacrum, forming the greater sciatic foramen through
which lower limb neurovasculature (including the sciatic
nerve) passes. The lesser sciatic foramen is formed by
the sacrotuberous ligament, which runs from the sacrum
to the ischial tubero
PELVIC GIRDLE
• EACH hip bone consits
of 3 bones that fuse
together- ILIUM,
ISCHIUM, PUBIS
• Anteriorly- The 2 bones
joined anteriorly – by
the symphysis pubis-
fibrocartilage
• Posteriorly- joined by
sacrum forming
sacroiliac joint
 • Largest of the 3 hip bones
ILIUM • Ilium is the superior part of the
hip bone
• Consists of superior –ala- and
inferior body- which forms the
ACETABULUM- the socket
for the head of the femur
• Superior border- iliac crest
• Hip point- occurs at anterior
superior iliac spine
• Greater sciatic notch- allows
passage of sciatic nerve.
ISCHIUM AND PUBIS
• ISCHIUM- inferior and
posterior part of the
hip bone
• Most prominent feaure
is the ischial
tuberosity- it is the
part that meets the
chair when you sit
down
• Pubis- inferior and
anterior part of hip
bone
False and true pelvis
• Pelvic brim- a line from sacral promontory to
upper part of symphysis pubis
• False pelvis- lies above this line- below
promontory and pubis symphysis)
• Contains no pelvic organs except urinary
bladder-when full- and uterus during pregnancy
• True pelvis- bony pelvis inferior to pelvic
brim,has an inlet an outlet and a cavity
• Pelvic axis- path of baby during birth
Point of comparison female male
General structure Light and thin Heavy and thick
False pelvis shallow deep
Pelvic brim Larger and oval Smaller- heart shaped
acetabulum Small and faces Large faces laterally
anteriorly
Obturator foramen oval round
Pubic arch Greater than 90 deg Less than 90 deg
Iliac crest Less curved More curved
ilium Less vertical narrow
Greater sciatic notch wide narrow
coccyx More moveable and Less movable and less
curved anteriorly curved anteriorly
Sacrum Shorter ,wider and less Longer, more curved
curved anteriorly anteriorly
Pelvic outlet wider narrower
Ischial tuberosity Shorter, farther apart Longer,closer together
and medially projecting and more laterally
projecting
SACRUM
• It is curved more in males than females
• Protects reproductive, urinary and digestive organs
• Attaches- the skeletal to pelvic girdle of appendicular skeleton
• Broad muscles that move the thigh
• The adult sacrum:
• Consists of 5 fused sacral vertebrae
• Fuses between puberty and ages 25-30
• Sacral cornua
• Horn shaped
• Formed by laminae of the 5th sacral vertebrae which do not meet at
the midline
• Sacral hiatus
• Opening at the inferior end of the sacral canal
• Formed by ridges of sacral cornua
• MEDIAN SACRAL CREST – fused spinous
process, 4 paris of sacral foramina open to
either side
• LATERAL SACRAL CREST –fused transverse
process, attach to muscles of lower back and
hip
• AURICULAR SURFACE – thick flattened
area, articulates with pelvic girdle forming
sacro iliac joint
• SACRAL TUBEROSITY – rough area, attaches
to ligaments of sacroiliac joint
 4 REGIONS OF SACRUM
SACRUM 1. BASE - broad superior
surface
2. ALA – wings at wither side of
the base
3. SACRAL PROMONTORY –
centre of the base
4. APEX – narrow inferior
portion ,articulates with the
coccyx
COCCYX • Attaches ligaments and the
constricting muscle of the
anus
• Mature cocys- consists of 3
to 5 fused coccygeal
vertebrae
• First 2 coccygeal vertebrae
have transverse process and
unfused vertebral arches
• Coccygeal cornua- formed
by lamina of first coccygeal
vertebra
THORAX –CHEST
Draw and label
THORACIC cage and classify ribs
1. The bones of the thoracic cage are : 1 sternum, 12 pairs of ribs, 12
thoracic vertebrae
2. The sternum : is a flat bone ,made of 3 parts = MANUBRIUM, BODY
AND XIPHOID PROCESS. The clavicles are attached to manubrium. The body
/middle portion called and presents facets laterally for attachment of ribs. The
tip of the sternum is called XIPHOID PROCESS to which the diaphram and
muscles of anterior abdominal wall.
3. RIBS- There are 12 pairs of ribs forming the LATERAL WALL OF RIB CAGE .
Ist 7 directly attach to sternum (TRUE RIBS) 8,910 indirectly attach to
sternum (FALSE RIBS) AND 11 ,12 not attached to sternum (FLOATING
RIBS). Each rib is FLAT, CURVED and has head (attached to
vertebrae ) ,neck,angle, tubercle, sternal end attached to sternum by costal
cartilage, 2 surfaces (anterior and posterior ) and 2 borders ( smooth superior
and grooved inferior ) The intercostal muscles occupy spaces between ribs
4. THORACIC VERTEBRAE- THE SPINOUS PROCESS is longer in thoracic
vertebrae and they have facets which articulate with the ribs.
• RIBS- There are 12 pairs
of ribs forming the
LATERAL WALL OF RIB
CAGE .
• Ist 7 directly attach to
sternum (TRUE RIBS)
• 8,910 indirectly attach to
sternum (FALSE RIBS)
AND
• 11 ,12 not attached to
sternum (FLOATING
RIBS).
•
 RIB
• Each rib is FLAT, CURVED
and has head (attached to
vertebrae ) ,neck,angle,
tubercle, sternal end
attached to sternum by
costal cartilage, 2 surfaces
(anterior and posterior )
and 2 borders ( smooth
superior and grooved
inferior ) The intercostal
muscles occupy spaces
between ribs
GIVE THE ORIGIN, INSERTION AND ACTIONS OF
EXTERNAL AND INTERNAL INTERCOSTAL
MUSCLES
EXTERNAL INTERCOSTAL
ORIGIN; LOWER BORDER OF RIB ABOVE
FIBRES RUN DOWN AND FORWARDS
INSERTION : UPPER BORDER OF RIB BELOW
ACTION - IN INSPIRATION –IT LIFTS THE RIB

INTERNAL INERCOSTAL
ORIGIN: RIDGE OF INSIDE OF RIB
INSERT : RIB BELOW
ACTION : IN EXPIRATION IT DRAWS RIBS
TOGETHER AND REDUCES
VOLUME OF THORACIC CAVITY
 WRITE SHORT NOTES ON THE DIAPHRAGM

ACTION
PRINCIPAL
THIS IS THE

MUSCLE OF
RESPIRATION
DURING INSPIRATION THE
CENTRAL TENDON
IS PULLED DOWN AND THE
VOLUME OF THORACIC CAVITY
INCREASES AS AIR IS PULLED IN
Name the structures passing through the
diaphragm
 • A FLAT BONE
STERNUM • In the midline of the
thoracic wall
• 3 parts of the sternum-
1. Manubrium
2. Sternal body
3. Xiphoid process
STERNUM
• Manubrium –
• Superior portion of sternum
• broad, triangular
• Articulates with clavicles- collarbones
• Articulates with cartilages of 1st rib pair
• Has a jugular notch –a shallow indentation between clavicular articulations
• STERNAL BODY-
• IS tongue shaped
• Attaches to manubrium
• Attaces to costal cartilages of ribs 2-7
• XIPHOID PROCESS
• Is the smallest part of the sternum
• Attaches to sternal body
• Attaches to diaphragm nad rectus abdomimus muscles
PELVIC GIRDLE
• EACH hip bone consits
of 3 bones that fuse
together- ILIUM,
ISCHIUM, PUBIS
• Anteriorly- The 2 bones
joined anteriorly – by
the symphysis pubis-
fibrocartilage
• Posteriorly- joined by
sacrum forming
sacroiliac joint
 • Largest of the 3 hip bones
ILIUM • Ilium is the superior part of the
hip bone
• Consists of superior –ala- and
inferior body- which forms the
ACETABULUM- the socket
for the head of the femur
• Superior border- iliac crest
• Hip point- occurs at anterior
superior iliac spine
• Greater sciatic notch- allows
passage of sciatic nerve.
ISCHIUM AND PUBIS
• ISCHIUM- inferior and
posterior part of the
hip bone
• Most prominent feaure
is the ischial
tuberosity- it is the
part that meets the
chair when you sit
down
• Pubis- inferior and
anterior part of hip
bone
False and true pelvis
• Pelvic brim- a line from sacral promontory to
upper part of symphysis pubis
• False pelvis- lies above this line- below
promontory and pubis symphysis)
• Contains no pelvic organs except urinary
bladder-when full- and uterus during pregnancy
• True pelvis- bony pelvis inferior to pelvic
brim,has an inlet an outlet and a cavity
• Pelvic axis- path of baby during birth
Point of comparison female male
General structure Light and thin Heavy and thick
False pelvis shallow deep
Pelvic brim Larger and oval Smaller- heart shaped
acetabulum Small and faces Large faces laterally
anteriorly
Obturator foramen oval round
Pubic arch Greater than 90 deg Less than 90 deg
Iliac crest Less curved More curved
ilium Less vertical narrow
Greater sciatic notch wide narrow
coccyx More moveable and Less movable and less
curved anteriorly curved anteriorly
Sacrum Shorter ,wider and less Longer, more curved
curved anteriorly anteriorly
Pelvic outlet wider narrower
Ischial tuberosity Shorter, farther apart Longer,closer together
and medially projecting and more laterally
projecting
APPENDICULAR
SKELETON
BONES- UPPER
LIMB, LOWER
LIMB
HUMERUS
• LONGEST AND LARGEST bon of free part of upper limb
• The proximal ball shaped end articulates with the glenoid cavity of scapula
• The distal end articulates at the elbow with the radius and ulna
• HUMERUS SURFACE FEATURES:
• THE head of the humerus has 2 unequal sized projections
• The greater tubercle- lies laterally
• Lesser tubercle- lies anteriorly
• Between the tubercles lies the intertubercular grroce pr bicipital grrove where the longhead of
the biceps bronchii tendon is located.
• Anatomical neck : just distal to the head is anatomical neck
• Surgical neck : where tubular shaft begins and is a common area of fracture
• Midshaft: on lateral aspect is a rough area ,the deltoid tuberosity where delotid tendon attaches
• Capitulum : a roung knob like process on the lateral distal humerus
• Trochlea- medial to capitulum is a spoon shaped projection on the distal humerus
• Coronoid fossa- anterior depression that receives the coronoid process of ulna during flexion
• Olecranon fossa- posterior depression that receives the coronoid process of the ulna during
forearm flexion
• Medial and lateral epicondyles- are bony projections to which the forearm muscles attach
HUMERUS
 • LONGER OF THE 2
FOREARM BONES
ULNA BONE Located medial to radius
• Olecranon- the large
prominent proximal end-
the tip of your elbow
• Coronoid process- the
anterior tip of the proximal
ulna
• Trochlear notch- the
deep fossa that receives the
trochlea of the humerus
during elbow flexion
• Styloid process- the thin
cylindrical projection on the
posterior head of ulna
 • LIES UNDER THE ULNA-
RADIUS THUMB SIDE OF
FOREARM
• The head-disc shaped- and
neck are at proximal end
• The head articulates with the
capitulum of the humerus
and radial notch of the ulna
• Radial tuberosity- medial
and inferior to neck
attachment site for biceps
brachi muscle
• Styloid proces- large distal
projection on lateral side of
radius
CARPAL BONE-She looks too pretty try to catch her
• CARPUS- wrist consists of 8
small bones – carpals
• There are 2 rows
• Proximal- scaphoid,
lunate, triquetrum,
pisiform
• Distal row- trapezium,
trapezoid, capitate,hamate
• Scaphoid- most commonly
fractured
• Carpal tunnel- space between
carpal bones and flexor
retinaculum
lower limb
FEMUR
• LONGEST, strongest bone in the body
• Proximally the head articulates with the acetabulum of the hip
bone forming the hip (coxal) joint
• Neck : distal to head common site of fracture
• Distally- the medial and lateral condyles articulate with the
condyles of the tibia forming the knee joint.
• Greater and lesser trochanter are projections where large
muscles attach
• Gluteal tuberosity and linear aspera- attachment sites for
the large hip muscles
• Intercondylar fossa : depression between the condyles
• Medial and lateral epicondyles – muscles attachment for
knee muscles
FEMUR
• FEMUR is the LONGEST AND STRONGEST bone in
the whole body
• PROXIMAL END= is made of HEAD ( spherical and
fits into Acetabulum) , NECK, GREATER AND LESSER
TROCHANTER which gives attachment to muscles that
move the HIP (between these is Intertrochanteric
line)
• SHAFT- IS CONVEX ANTERIORLY and distally is
broad and triangular forming POPLITEAL SURFACE
• DISTAL END – has 2 CONDYLES beween which is
INTERCONDYLAR FOSSA
HEAD
OF
 • Largest sesamoid bone
PATELLA in the body
• Forms the patellofemoral
joint
• Superior surface is the
base
• Inferior ,narrower
surface is the apex
• Thick articular cartilae
lines the posterior
surface
• Increases the leverage of the
quadriceps femoris muscle
• Patellofemoral stress
syndrome- “runner’s knee”
TIBIA • Lateral and medial
condyles at the
proximal end articulate
with the femur
• It articulate distally
with the talus and fibula
• Tibial tuberosity –
attachement of patellar
ligament
• Medial malleolus-
medial surface of the
distal end (medial
surface of ankle joint)
FIBULA
• THE smaller ,laterally
placed bone of the leg
• Non-wiehgt bearing
• The head forms the
proximal tibifibular
joint
• Lateral malleolus-
distal end- articulates
with the tibia and
talus at the ankle
SKELETON OF THE FOOT
• TARSAL -7 BONES
• Talus, calcaneus, navicular, cuboid and 3
cuneiform (lateral ,intermediate and medial)
• METATARSAL – 5 BONES-
• PHALANGES – 14 PHALANGES- BIG TOE IS
HALLUS
Name the TARSAL BONES
ARCHES OF THE FOOT
•