Computer Memory

Memory is major part of computers that categories into several

types.
- Memory is best storage part to the computer users to save
information, programs and etc,
- The computer memory offer several kinds of storage media
some of them can store data temporarily and some them can
store permanently.
- Memory consists of instructions and the data saved into
computer through Central Processing Unit (CPU).
Types of Computer Memory's:
Memory is the best essential element of a computer because
computer can’t perform simple tasks. The performance of computer
mainly based on memory and CPU. Memory is internal storage
media of computer that has several names such as majorly
categorized into two types, Main memory and Secondary memory.
1. Primary Memory / Volatile Memory.
2. Secondary Memory / Non Volatile Memory.
 1. Primary Memory / Volatile Memory:

Primary Memory also called as volatile memory because the memory can’t store
the data permanently. Primary memory select any part of memory when user
want to save the data in memory but that may not be store permanently on that
location. It also has another name i.e. RAM.
Random Access Memory (RAM):
The primary storage is referred to as random access memory (RAM) due to the
random selection of memory locations. It performs both read and write
operations on memory. If power failures happened in systems during memory
access then you will lose your data permanently. So, RAM is volatile memory.
RAM categorized into following types.
DRAM
SRAM
DRDRAM
2. Secondary Memory / Non Volatile Memory:

Secondary memory is external and permanent memory that is useful to store the
external storage media such as floppy disk, magnetic disks, magnetic tapes and
etc cache devices. Secondary memory deals with following types of
components.
Read Only Memory (ROM) :
ROM is permanent memory location that offer huge types of standards to save
data. But it work with read only operation. No data lose happen whenever
power failure occur during the ROM memory work in the computer
 Read-Only Memory (ROM)

• a type of memory that normally can only be read, but cannot

write on it.

• This type of memory is non-volatile. The information is

stored permanently in such memories during manufacture.

• A ROM, stores such instructions that are required to start a

computer. This operation is referred to as bootstrap.

• ROM chips are not only used in the computer but also in other
electronic items like washing machine and microwave oven.
There are two main reasons that read-only memory is used for
certain functions within the PC:

• The values stored in ROM are always there, whether the

power is on or not. For this reason, it is called non-volatile
storage.
• Read-only memory is most commonly used to store system-
level programs that we want to have available to the PC at all
times. The most common example is the system BIOS
program, use it to boot up the system.
The advantages of ROM are as follows:
• Non-volatile in nature
• These cannot be accidentally changed
• Cheaper than RAMs
• Easy to test
• More reliable than RAMs
• These are static and do not require refreshing
• Its contents are always known and can be verified
 Different types of ROMs with a description of their
relative modifiability:
• Programmable ROM (PROM)
• Erasable Programmable ROM (EPROM)
• Electrically Erasable Programmable ROM (EEPROM)
Programmable ROM (PROM):
• This is a type of ROM that can be programmed using
special equipment;
• it can be written to, but only once.
• This is useful for companies that make their own
ROMs from software they write, because when they
change their code they can create new PROMs without
requiring expensive equipment.
• This is similar to the way a CD-ROM recorder works
by letting you "burn" programs onto blanks once and
then letting you read from them many times.
• In fact, programming a PROM is also called burning,
just like burning a CD-R, and it is comparable in
terms of its flexibility.
Erasable Programmable ROM (EPROM):
• An EPROM is a ROM that can be erased and
reprogrammed by exposing it to ultra-violet.
• A little glass window is installed in the top of the
ROM package, through which you can actually see
the chip that holds the memory.
• Ultraviolet light of a specific frequency can be shined
through this window for a specified period of time,
which will erase the EPROM and allow it to be
reprogrammed again.
• Obviously this is much more useful than a regular
PROM, but it does require the erasing light.
• this technology is analogous to a reusable CD-RW.
Electrically Erasable Programmable ROM (EEPROM):
• Programmed and erased electrically under software
control.
• This is the most flexible type of ROM, and commonly
used for holding BIOS programs.
– When you hear reference to a "flash BIOS" or doing a
BIOS upgrade by "flashing", this refers to
reprogramming the BIOS EEPROM with a special
software program.
 Random Access Memory (RAM)

• The kind of memory used for holding programs and data

being executed.
• RAM differs from read-only memory (ROM) in that it can
be both read and written.
• It is considered volatile storage because unlike ROM, the
contents of RAM are lost when the power is turned off. The
volatility of RAM also means that you risk losing what you
are working on unless you save it frequently.
 Types of RAMs

Static RAM (SRAM)

• a type of RAM that holds its data without external refresh,
for as long as power is supplied to the circuit.
• SRAM does not have to be periodically refreshed. Static
RAM provides faster access to data and is more expensive
than DRAM.
• SRAM is used for a computer's cache memory (special
memory used by the CPU for the purpose of decreasing the
average time taken for memory accesses) and as part of the
Characteristic of the Static RAM
• It has long life
• There is no need to refresh
• Faster
• Used as cache memory
• Large size
• Expensive
• High power consumption
 Dynamic RAM (DRAM)
• DRAM, unlike SRAM, must be continually refreshed in order
to maintain the data. This is done by placing the memory on a
refresh circuit that rewrites the data several hundred times per
second.
• All DRAMs are made up of memory cells which are
composed of one capacitor and one transistor.
• DRAM is used for most system memory because it is cheap
and small.
Characteristics of the Dynamic RAM
• It has short data lifetime
• Need to be refreshed continuously
• Slower as compared to SRAM
• Used as RAM
• Lesser in size
• Less expensive
• Less power consumption
Summary:
• SRAM is static while DRAM is dynamic
• SRAM is faster compared to DRAM
• SRAM consumes less power than DRAM
• SRAM uses more transistors per bit of memory compared to DRAM
• SRAM is more expensive than DRAM Cheaper
• DRAM is used in main memory while SRAM is commonly used in
cache memory
Upgrade Memory

How to Upgrade Memory

• Basic technique
– Add more RAM modules
• Why the memory needed to be up-graded?
• Up-grading the memory is results in better
performance
• It Allows multitasking: more tasks can be done
simultaneously
 COMMON MEMORY PROBLEMS

• When you have a problem with memory, the cause is

usually one of three things:
– Improper Configuration: You have the wrong part for
your computer or did not follow the configuration rules.
– Improper Installation: The memory may not be seated
correctly, a socket is bad, or the socket may need
cleaning.
– Defective Hardware: The memory module itself is
defective.
 Symptoms of a RAM Problem

• When turn on your computer it runs fine, but as go its

performance diminishes. By lunch time, websites take
minutes to load and local programs run at a snail's
pace.
– This type of gradual deterioration of PC
performance, especially with memory-intensive
programs.
• computer randomly restarts while you are in the middle
of something or freeze sporadically. It may also reboot
almost immediately upon opening the desktop.
• A blue screen with white text flashes before restarting.
• Files—particularly ones frequently access and save—
seem to be inexplicably corrupted.
• The file structure of hard drive may slowly degenerate
and will no longer be able to boot your machine.
• attempts to install a new program repeatedly fail for
unknown reasons.
• try to reinstall the operating system, but keep getting
error messages.
• The computer won't boot, merely beeps.
• The computer boots but the screen is blank.
• The computer reports a memory error.
– Memory mismatch error
– Memory parity interrupt at xxxxx
– Memory address error at xxxxx
– Memory failure at xxxxx, read xxxxx, expecting xxxxx
– Memory verify error at xxxxx
The following basic steps apply to almost all situations:
• Make sure you have the right memory part for your
computer.
• Confirm that you configured the memory correctly.
• Re-install the module.
• Swap modules.
• Clean the socket and pins on the memory module
• Update the BIOS
Storage Devices
1.Computer Data Storage
2. Types of Storage
3. Storage Device Features
4. Other Examples of Storage Device
Storage Devices
• A storage device is used in the computers to store the
data.
• Provides one of the core functions of the modern
computer.

Types of Storage
There are four type of storage:
• Primary Storage
• Secondary Storage
• Tertiary Storage
• Off-line Storage
Primary Storage
• Also known as main memory.
• Main memory is directly or indirectly connected to the central processing unit via a
memory bus.
• The CPU continuously reads instructions stored there and executes them as
required.
• Example: – RAM
– ROM
– Cache
RAM
• It is called Random Access Memory because any of the data in RAM can be
accessed just as fast as any of the other data.
• There are two types of RAM: – DRAM (Dynamic Random Access Memory)
– SRAM (Static Random Access Memory)
Primary Storage
• Also known as main memory.
• Main memory is directly or indirectly connected to the central processing unit via a
memory bus.
• The CPU continuously reads instructions stored there and executes them as
required.
• Example: – RAM
– ROM
– Cache
RAM
• It is called Random Access Memory because any of the data in RAM can be
accessed just as fast as any of the other data.
• There are two types of RAM: – DRAM (Dynamic Random Access Memory)
– SRAM (Static Random Access Memory)
Cache
• Cache is a high-speed access area that can be either a reserved section of
main memory or a storage device.
• Most computers today come with L3 cache or L2 cache, while older
computers included only L1 cache.

Secondary Storage
• It is not directly accessible by the CPU
. • Computer usually uses its input/output channels to access secondary
storage and transfers the desired data using intermediate area in primary
storage. • Example: – Hard disk
Hard Disk
• The hard disk drive is the main, and
usually largest, data storage device in a
computer.
• It can store anywhere from 160
gigabytes to 2 terabytes.
• Hard disk speed is the speed at which
content can be read and written on a hard
disk.
• A hard disk unit comes with a set
rotation speed varying from 4500 to 7200
rpm.
• Disk access time is measured in
 Hard Disk

Tertiary Storage
• Typically it involves a robotic mechanism which will mount (insert) and
dismount removable mass storage media into a storage device.
• It is a comprehensive computer storage system that is usually very slow, so it is
usually used to archive data that is not accessed frequently.
• This is primarily useful for extraordinarily large data stores, accessed without
human operators.
Example: – Magnetic Tape
– Optical Disc
Optical Disc
• Optical disc is any storage media that holds content in digital format and is read
using a laser assembly is considered optical media.
• The most common types of optical media are – Blu-ray (BD) – Compact Disc
(CD) – Digital Versatile Disc (DVD)
Off-line Storage
• Also known as disconnected storage.
• Is a computer data storage on a medium or a device that is not under the control of a
processing unit.
• It must be inserted or connected by a human operator before a computer can access it again.
• Also known as disconnected or removable storage.
• Is a computer data storage on a medium or a device that is not under the control of a
processing unit.
• It must be inserted or connected by a human operator before a computer can access it again.
• Examples: – Floppy Disk
– Zip diskette
– USB Flash drive
– Memory card
Floppy Disk
• A soft magnetic disk. • Floppy disks
are portable.
• Floppy disks are slower to access
than hard disks and have less storage
capacity, but they are much less
expensive.
• Can store data up to 1.44MB.
• Two common sizes: 5 ¼” and 3 ½”.
Floppy Disk
5 ¼ inch Floppy Disk 3 ½ inch Floppy
Zip Diskette
• Hardware data storage device developed by
Iomega that functions like a Standard 1.44"
floppy drive.
• Capable to hold up to 100 MB of data or
250 MB of data on new drives.
• Now it less popular as users needed larger
storage capabilities.
USB Flash Drive
• A small, portable flash memory card that
plugs into a computer’s USB port and
functions as a portable hard drive. • Flash
drives are available in sizes such as 256MB,
512MB, 1GB, 5GB, and 16GB and are an
easy way to transfer and store information.
Memory Card
• An electronic flash memory storage
disk commonly used in consumer
electronic devices such as digital
cameras, MP3 players, mobile phones,
and other small portable devices.
• Memory cards are usually read by
connecting the device containing the
card to your computer, or by using a
USB card reader.
Storage Device Features
• Volatility
• Accessibility
• Mutability
• Addressability
Volatility
• Two types of volatility: – Volatile Memory
– Non-Volatile Memory
Volatile Memory
• Requires constant power to maintain the stored information.
• The fastest memory technologies.
• All contents are erased when the system's power is turned off or interrupted.
• It has been more popularly known as temporary memory.
Non-Volatile Memory
• Will retain the stored information even if it is not constantly supplied with electric
power.
• Non volatile memory is the device which keeps the data even when the current is off.
• It is suitable for long-term storage of information.
Accessibility
• Refers to reading or writing data records • Two types of accessibility: – Random
access – Sequential access
Accessibility
Random Access
• Any location in storage can be accessed at any moment in approximately the same
amount of time.
• Such characteristic is well suited for primary and secondary storage.
Accessibility
Sequential Access
• The accessing of pieces of information will be in a serial order, one after the other;
therefore the time to access a particular piece of information depends upon which piece
of information was last accessed.
• Such characteristic is typical of off-line storage.
Mutability
• Allows information to be overwritten at any time. • A computer without some amount of
read/write storage for primary storage purposes would be useless for many tasks. • Three
types of mutability: – Read/write storage or mutable storage – Read only storage – Slow
write, fast read storage
Mutability
Read/Write Storage or Mutable Storage
• Allows information to be overwritten at any time. • A computer without some amount of
read/write storage for primary storage purposes would be useless for many tasks.
Mutability
Read Only Storage
• Retains the information stored at the time of manufacture, and write once storage
(WORM) allows the information to be written only once at some point after manufacture. •
These are called immutable storage.
Mutability
Slow Write, Fast Read Storage
• Read/write storage which allows information to be overwritten multiple times, but with the write
operation being much slower than the read operation.
Addressability
• Three types of addressability – Location-addressable – File addressable – Content-addressable
Addressability
Location-addressable
• Each individually accessible unit of information in storage is selected with its numerical
memory address.
Addressability
File addressable
• Information is divided into files of variable length, and a particular file is selected with human-
readable directory and file names.
Addressability
Content-addressable
• Each individually accessible unit of information is selected based on the basis of (part
of) the contents stored there. • Content-addressable storage can be implemented
using software (computer program) or hardware (computer device), with hardware
being faster but more expensive option. • Hardware content addressable memory is
often used in a computer's CPU cache.
Other Example of Storage Devices
• Punch card • Cloud storage • RAID
Other Example of Storage Devices
Punched Card
• Early method of data storage used with early computers • Punch cards also known
as Hollerith cards • Containing several punched holes that represents data
Other Example of Storage
Devices
Cloud Storage
• Cloud storage means "the
storage of data online in the
cloud," wherein a data is
stored in and accessible
from multiple distributed
and connected resources that
comprise a cloud.
• Cloud storage can provide
the benefits of greater
accessibility and reliability;
rapid deployment; strong
protection for data backup,
archival and disaster
recovery purposes.
Cloud Storage
• Examples: – Google Drive –
Flickr – Microsoft Sky Drive
RAID
• RAID is short for redundant array of independent (or inexpensive) disks.
• It is a category of disk drives that employ two or more drives in
combination for fault tolerance and performance.
• RAID disk drives are used frequently on servers but aren't generally
necessary for personal computers.
• RAID allows you to store the same data redundantly (in multiple paces) in a
balanced way to improve overall storage performance.
QUESTIONS?