Database Management System

Unit - 1
 DBMS
• Database is a collection of related data and data is a collection of
facts and figures that can be processed to produce information.
• Mostly data represents recordable facts. Data aids in producing
information, which is based on facts. For example, if we have data
about marks obtained by all students, we can then conclude about
toppers and average marks.
• A database management system stores data in such a way that it
becomes easier to retrieve, manipulate, and produce information.
• Database Management System or DBMS in short refers to the
technology of storing and retrieving users’ data with utmost
efficiency along with appropriate security measures.
 Characteristics of DBMS
• Traditionally, data was organized in file formats. DBMS was a new
concept then, and all the research was done to make it overcome
the deficiencies in traditional style of data management. A modern
DBMS has the following characteristics −
• Real-world entity − A modern DBMS is more realistic and uses real-
world entities to design its architecture. It uses the behavior and
attributes too. For example, a school database may use students as
an entity and their age as an attribute.
• Relation-based tables − DBMS allows entities and relations among
them to form tables. A user can understand the architecture of a
database just by looking at the table names.
 Characteristics Cont..
• Isolation of data and application − A database system is entirely
different than its data. A database is an active entity, whereas data
is said to be passive, on which the database works and organizes.
DBMS also stores metadata, which is data about data, to ease its
own process.
• Less redundancy − DBMS follows the rules of normalization, which
splits a relation when any of its attributes is having redundancy in
values. Normalization is a mathematically rich and scientific
process that reduces data redundancy.
 Characteristics of DBMS Cont..
• Consistency − Consistency is a state where every relation in a
database remains consistent. There exist methods and techniques,
which can detect attempt of leaving database in inconsistent state. A
DBMS can provide greater consistency as compared to earlier forms
of data storing applications like file-processing systems.
• Query Language − DBMS is equipped with query language, which
makes it more efficient to retrieve and manipulate data. A user can
apply as many and as different filtering options as required to retrieve
a set of data. Traditionally it was not possible where file-processing
system was used.
 Characteristics of DBMS Cont..
• A database management system stores data in such a way that it
becomes easier to retrieve, manipulate, and produce information.
Following are the important characteristics of DBMS.
• ACID Properties − DBMS follows the concepts
of Atomicity, Consistency, Isolation, and Durability (normally shortened
as ACID). These concepts are applied on transactions, which
manipulate data in a database. ACID properties help the database stay
healthy in multi-transactional environments and in case of failure.
• Multiuser and Concurrent Access − DBMS supports multi-user
environment and allows them to access and manipulate data in
parallel. Though there are restrictions on transactions when users
attempt to handle the same data item, but users are always unaware
of them.
 Characteristics of DBMS Cont..
• Multiple views − DBMS offers multiple views for different users. A
user who is in the Sales department will have a different view of
database than a person working in the Production department. This
feature enables the users to have a concentrate view of the database
according to their requirements.
• Security − Features like multiple views offer security to some extent
where users are unable to access data of other users and
departments.
– DBMS offers methods to impose constraints while entering data
into the database and retrieving the same at a later stage.
– DBMS offers many different levels of security features, which
enables multiple users to have different views with different
features.
 Characteristics of DBMS Cont..
– For example, a user in the Sales department cannot see the
data that belongs to the Purchase department.
– Additionally, it can also be managed how much data of the
Sales department should be displayed to the user.
– Since a DBMS is not saved on the disk as traditional file systems,
it is very hard for miscreants to break the code.
• Applications of DBMS:
• The Database Management System (DBMS) is defined as a
software system that allows the user to define, create and
maintain the database and provide control access to the data.
• It is a collection of programs used for managing data and
simultaneously it supports different types of users to create,
manage, retrieve, update and store information.
 Applications of DBMS
• Following are some of the applications where database management
system is used −
• Railway Reservation System − The railway reservation system
database plays a very important role by keeping record of ticket
booking, train’s departure time and arrival status and also gives
information regarding train late to people through the database.
• Library Management System − Now-a-days it’s become easy in the
Library to track each book and maintain it because of the database.
This happens because there are thousands of books in the library. It is
very difficult to keep a record of all books in a copy or register. Now
DBMS used to maintain all the information related to book issue
dates, name of the book, author and availability of the book.
 Applications of DBMS Cont..
• Banking − Banking is one of the main applications of databases. We
all know there will be a thousand transactions through banks daily
and we are doing this without going to the bank. This is all possible
just because of DBMS that manages all the bank transactions.
• Universities and colleges − Now-a-days examinations are done
online. So, the universities and colleges are maintaining DBMS to
store Student’s registrations details, results, courses and grade all
the information in the database.
– For example, telecommunications. Without DBMS there is no
telecommunication company. DBMS is most useful to these companies to
store the call details and monthly postpaid bills.
 Applications of DBMS Cont..
• Credit card transactions − The purchase of items and transactions
of credit cards are made possible only by DBMS. A credit card
holder has to know the importance of their information that all are
secured through DBMS.
• Social Media Sites − By filling the required details we are able to
access social media platforms. Many users sign up daily on social
websites such as Facebook, Pinterest and Instagram. All the
information related to the users are stored and maintained with
the help of DBMS.
• Finance − Now-a-days there are lots of things to do with finance
like storing sales, holding information and finance statement
management etc. these all can be done with database systems.
 Applications of DBMS Cont..
• Military − In military areas the DBMS is playing a vital role. Military
keeps records of soldiers and it has so many files that should be
kept secure and safe. DBMS provides a high security to military
information.
• Online Shopping − Now-a-days we all do Online shopping without
wasting the time by going shopping with the help of DBMS. The
products are added and sold only with the help of DBMS like
Purchase information, invoice bills and payment.
• Human Resource Management − The management keeps records
of each employee’s salary, tax and work through DBMS.
 Applications of DBMS Cont..
• Manufacturing − Manufacturing companies make products and
sell them on a daily basis. To keep records of all those details
DBMS is used.
• Airline Reservation system − Just like the railway reservation
system, airlines also need DBMS to keep records of flights arrival,
departure and delay status.
• So finally, we can clearly conclude that the DBMS is playing a very
important role in each and every field.
Applications of DBMS Cont..
 DBMS Users
1. Administrators
– They are responsible for maintaining the database by seeing who uses it at
what time. Administrators create profiles of the users who can access the
data and isolate the users without authorization. They also take care of
system licenses, required tools, and other maintenance tasks.
2. Designers
– They design the entire database and decide the format that suits them the
best. This includes designing entities, relations, views, etc.
3. End Users
– They are the ones who use it in the end. They can be just viewers who look
at it out of curiosity or analysts trying to study market trends.
4. Application Programmers
– They are the ones who write in the programming language to create
database interaction.
 Types of DBMS
• 1. Hierarchical DBMS
• The data organization is in the form of a tree-like structure. There is a
hierarchy in the data storage following a parent-child relationship.
And just like this relationship, the parents can have many kids but the
kid has only one parent.
• 2. Network Model
• The data organization in this has a complex relationship. They are in a
graphical form with several paths. To make it easy, the kid can have
more than one parent here.
• 3. Relational model
• It is one of the easiest models that normalizes data in rows and
columns. It follows a fixed structure using SQL.
• 4. Object-Oriented Model
• This type of model has data in object forms. The structure it follows
has data in class form with both values and operations.
• 1. Storage engine
Components of a DBMS
• This is where all the data goes as it ascites as an interface between the database system and the
operating system. It sometimes uses more components to store data at the file system level.
• 2. Metadata catalog
• This is the place where DBMS registers all the data at the time of creation. It uses this catalog to verify
data requests and then execute them further. The information related to objects, schemas, programs,
security, performance, etc. is also available here.
• 3. Database access language
• It also needs an API to access data and database access language acts as one in this system. This allows
data modification and creation while securing them from unauthorized users. SQL is an example of this
language.
• 4. Optimization engine
• This engine is to execute requests by database access language by making them actionable commands
for data access.
• 5. Lock manager
• It is responsible to manage concurrent access to the same data to ensure that users cannot modify it at
the same time.
• 6. Log manager
• It maintains all the records of change in data in the form of a log. This is an efficient and accurate way of
maintaining the records as they help in backups and run recoveries.
• 7. Data utilities
• There are a set of utilities to manage database activities like run stats, backup and copy, recovery, load
data, etc.
 Advantages and disadvantages of DBMS
• Advantages of DBMS
• It controls database redundancy by storing all the data in one file placed in
the database.
• It enables data sharing by giving access to authorized users of the same
company.
• It is easy to maintain because of its centralized nature.
• It reduces the time for development and maintenance.
• It always keeps a backup in case of hardware and software failures.
• It supports multiple user interfaces by giving access to many people at a
time.
• Disadvantages of DBMS
• The cost of hardware and software is high as it needs speed and large
memory to work.
• It takes up a large size of disks to run efficiently.
• There are more complexity and requirements.
• There is a higher impact of failure as the database is usually in a single
system.
 DBMS Architecture
• The design of a DBMS depends on its architecture. It can be
centralized or decentralized or hierarchical. The architecture of a
DBMS can be seen as either single tier or multi-tier. An n-tier
architecture divides the whole system into related but
independent n modules, which can be independently modified,
altered, changed, or replaced.
• In 1-tier architecture, the DBMS is the only entity where the user
directly sits on the DBMS and uses it. Any changes done here will
directly be done on the DBMS itself. It does not provide handy
tools for end-users. Database designers and programmers normally
prefer to use single-tier architecture.
 3 - tier Architecture
• If the architecture of DBMS is 2-tier, then it must have an application
through which the DBMS can be accessed. Programmers use 2-tier
architecture where they access the DBMS
by means of an application. Here the
application tier is entirely independent of
the database in terms of operation, design,
and programming.
• A 3-tier architecture separates its tiers
from each other based on the complexity
of the users and how they use the data
present in the database. It is the most
widely used architecture to design a
DBMS.
 3 - tier Architecture Cont..
• Database (Data) Tier − At this tier, the database resides along with
its query processing languages. We also have the relations that
define the data and their constraints at this level.
• Application (Middle) Tier − At this tier reside the application server
and the programs that access the database. For a user, this
application tier presents an abstracted view of the database. End-
users are unaware of any existence of the database beyond the
application. At the other end, the database tier is not aware of any
other user beyond the application tier. Hence, the application layer
sits in the middle and acts as a mediator between the end-user
and the database.
 3 - tier Architecture Cont..
• User (Presentation) Tier − End-users operate on this tier and they
know nothing about any existence of the database beyond this
layer. At this layer, multiple views of the database can be provided
by the application. All views are generated by applications that
reside in the application tier.
• Multiple-tier database architecture is highly modifiable, as almost
all its components are independent and can be changed
independently.
 Levels of Abstraction
•Many views:
• single
• conceptual (logical) schema
• and physical schema.

• Views describe how users see the data.

• Conceptual schema defines logical structure
• Physical schema describes the files and indexes
used.

* Schemas are defined using DDL; data is modified/queried using

 Example: University Database
• Conceptual schema:
• Students(sid: string, name: string, login: string, age: integer,
gpa:real)
• Courses(cid: string, cname:string, credits:integer)
Enrolled(sid:string, cid:string, grade:string)
• Physical schema:
• Relations stored as unordered files. Index on first column of
Students.
• External Schema (View):
• Course_info(cid:string,enrollment:integer)
 Data Models
• Data models define how the logical structure of a database is
modeled.
• Data Models are fundamental entities to introduce abstraction in a
DBMS.
• Data models define how data is connected to each other and how
they are processed and stored inside the system.
• The very first data model could be flat data-models, where all the
data used are to be kept in the same plane.
• Earlier data models were not so scientific, hence they were prone
to introduce lots of duplication and update anomalies.
 Entity-Relationship Model
• Entity-Relationship (ER) Model is based on the notion of real-world
entities and relationships among them. While formulating real-
world scenario into the database model, the ER Model creates
entity set, relationship set, general attributes and constraints.
• ER Model is best used for the conceptual design of a database.
• ER Model is based on −
• Entities and their attributes.
• Relationships among entities.
• These concepts are explained below.
 Entity
• Entity − An entity in an ER Model is a real-world entity having
properties called attributes. Every attribute is defined by its set of
values called domain. For example, in a school database, a student
is considered as an entity. Student has various attributes like name,
age, class, etc.
• Relationship − The logical
association among entities is
called relationship.
• Relationships are mapped
with entities in various ways.
• Mapping cardinalities
define the number of
association between two entities.
 Mapping cardinalities
• Mapping cardinalities −
– one to one
– one to many
– many to one
– many to many

• Relational Model
• The most popular data model in DBMS is the Relational Model. It is
more scientific a model than others. This model is based on first-
order predicate logic and defines a table as an n-ary relation.
 Relational Model
• The main highlights of this model are −
– Data is stored in tables called relations.
– Relations can be normalized.
– In normalized relations, values saved are atomic values.
– Each row in a relation contains a unique value.
– Each column in a relation contains values from a same domain.
 Database Schema
• A database schema is the skeleton structure that represents the
logical view of the entire database. It defines how the data is
organized and how the relations among them are associated. It
formulates all the constraints that are to be applied on the data.
• A database schema defines
its entities and the relationship
among them.
• It contains a descriptive detail
of the database, which can be
depicted by means of schema
diagrams.
• It’s the database designers
who design the schema to help
programmers understand the
 Schema Categories

• A database schema can be divided broadly into two categories −

• Physical Database Schema − This schema pertains to the actual

storage of data and its form of storage like files, indices, etc. It defines
how the data will be stored in a secondary storage.

• Logical Database Schema − This schema defines all the logical

constraints that need to be applied on the data stored. It defines
tables, views, and integrity constraints.
 Database Instance
• It is important that we distinguish these two terms individually.
• Database schema is the skeleton of database. It is designed when
the database doesn't exist at all. Once the database is operational, it
is very difficult to make any changes to it. A database schema does
not contain any data or information.
• A database instance is a state of operational database with data at
any given time. It contains a snapshot of the database.
• Database instances tend to change with time.
• A DBMS ensures that its every instance (state) is in a valid state, by
diligently following all the validations, constraints, and conditions
that the database designers have imposed.
 Data Independence
• If a database system is not multi-layered, then it becomes difficult to
make any changes in the database system. Database systems are
designed in multi-layers as we learnt earlier.
• Data Independence
• A database system normally contains a lot of data in addition to users’
data. For example, it stores data about data, known as metadata, to
locate and retrieve data easily.
• It is rather difficult to modify or
• update a set of metadata once it is
stored in the database.
• But as a DBMS expands, it needs to
• change over time to satisfy the
requirements of the users. If the entire
data is dependent, it would become a
tedious and highly complex job.
 Data Independence Cont..
• Metadata itself follows a layered architecture, so that when we
change data at one layer, it does not affect the data at another level.
This data is independent but mapped to each other.
• Logical Data Independence
• Logical data is data about database, that is, it stores information
about how data is managed inside. For example, a table (relation)
stored in the database and all its constraints, applied on that relation.
• Logical data independence is a kind of mechanism, which liberalizes
itself from actual data stored on the disk. If we do some changes on
table format, it should not change the data residing on the disk.
 Physical Data Independence
• All the schemas are logical, and the actual data is stored in bit
format on the disk. Physical data independence is the power to
change the physical data without impacting the schema or logical
data.
• For example, in case we want to change or upgrade the storage
system itself − suppose we want to replace hard-disks with SSD − it
should not have any impact on the logical data or schemas.
 ER Model - Concepts
• The ER model defines the conceptual view of a database. It works
around real-world entities and the associations among them. At view
level, the ER model is considered a good option for designing
databases.
• Entity
• An entity can be a real-world object, either animate or inanimate, that
can be easily identifiable.
• For example, in a school database, students, teachers, classes, and
courses offered can be considered as entities.
• All these entities have some attributes or properties that give them
their identity.
• An entity set is a collection of similar types of entities. An entity set may
contain entities with attribute sharing similar values.
• For example, a Students set may contain all the students of a school;
likewise a Teachers set may contain all the teachers of a school from all
faculties. Entity sets need not be disjoint.
 Attributes
• Entities are represented by means of their properties,
called attributes. All attributes have values. For example, a student
entity may have name, class, and age as attributes.
• There exists a domain or range of values that can be assigned to
attributes. For example, a student's name cannot be a numeric
value. It has to be alphabetic. A student's age cannot be negative,
etc.
• Types of Attributes
– Simple attribute − Simple attributes are atomic values, which cannot be
divided further. For example, a student's phone number is an atomic value of
10 digits.
– Composite attribute − Composite attributes are made of more than one
simple attribute. For example, a student's complete name may have
first_name and last_name.
 Types of Attributes
– Derived attribute − Derived attributes are the attributes that do not
exist in the physical database, but their values are derived from other
attributes present in the database. For example, average_salary in a
department should not be saved directly in the database, instead it can
be derived. For another example, age can be derived from
data_of_birth.
– Single-value attribute − Single-value attributes contain single value.
For example − Social_Security_Number.
– Multi-value attribute − Multi-value attributes may contain more than
one values. For example, a person can have more than one phone
number, email_address, etc.
• These attribute types can come together in a way like:
– simple single-valued attributes
– simple multi-valued attributes
– composite single-valued attributes
– composite multi-valued attributes
 Entity-Set and Keys
• Key is an attribute or collection of attributes that uniquely identifies
an entity among entity set.
• For example, the roll_number of a student makes him/her
identifiable among students.
• Super Key − A set of attributes (one or more) that collectively
identifies an entity in an entity set.
• Candidate Key − A minimal super key is called a candidate key. An
entity set may have more than one candidate key.
• Primary Key − A primary key is one of the candidate keys chosen by
the database designer to uniquely identify the entity set.
• Relationship
• The association among entities is called a relationship. For example,
an employee works_at a department, a student enrolls in a course.
Here, Works_at and Enrolls are called relationships.
 Relationship Set
• A set of relationships of similar type is called a relationship set. Like
entities, a relationship too can have attributes. These attributes are
called descriptive attributes.
• Degree of Relationship
• The number of participating entities in a relationship defines the
degree of the relationship.
• Binary = degree 2
• Ternary = degree 3
• n-ary = degree
 Mapping Cardinalities
• Cardinality defines the number of entities in one
entity set, which can be associated with the
number of entities of other set via relationship set.
• One-to-one − One entity from entity set A can be
associated with at most one entity of entity set B
and vice versa.
 One-to-many
• One-to-many − One entity from entity set A can be associated with
more than one entities of entity set B however an entity from
entity set B, can be associated with at most one entity.
 Many-to-one
• Many-to-one − More than one entities from entity set A can be
associated with at most one entity of entity set B, however an
entity from entity set B can be associated with more than one
entity from entity set A.
 Many-to-many
• Many-to-many − One entity from A can be associated with more
than one entity from B and vice versa.
 ER Diagram Representation
• Let us now learn how the ER Model is represented by means of an
ER diagram. Any object, for example, entities, attributes of an
entity, relationship sets, and attributes of relationship sets, can be
represented with the help of an ER diagram.

• Entity
• Entities are represented by means of rectangles. Rectangles are
named with the entity set they represent.
 Attributes
• Attributes are the properties of entities. Attributes are represented
by means of ellipses. Every ellipse represents one attribute and is
directly connected to its entity (rectangle).
 Composite Attributes
• If the attributes are composite, they are further divided in a tree
like structure. Every node is then connected to its attribute. That is,
composite attributes are represented by ellipses that are
connected with an ellipse.
 Multivalued Attributes
Multivalued attributes are depicted by double ellipse.
 Derived Attributes
• Derived attributes are depicted by dashed ellipse.
 Relationship
• Relationships are represented by diamond-shaped box. Name of
the relationship is written inside the diamond-box. All the entities
(rectangles) participating in a relationship, are connected to it by a
line.
• Binary Relationship and Cardinality
• A relationship where two entities are participating is called
a binary relationship. Cardinality is the number of instance of an
entity from a relation that can be associated with the relation.
 One-to-one relationship
• One-to-one − When only one instance of an entity is associated
with the relationship, it is marked as '1:1'. The following image
reflects that only one instance of each entity should be associated
with the relationship. It depicts one-to-one relationship.
 One-to-many relationship

• One-to-many − When more than one instance of an entity is

associated with a relationship, it is marked as '1:N'. The following
image reflects that only one instance of entity on the left and more
than one instance of an entity on the right can be associated with
the relationship. It depicts one-to-many relationship.
 Many-to-one relationship
• Many-to-one − When more than one instance of entity is
associated with the relationship, it is marked as 'N:1'. The
following image reflects that more than one instance of an entity
on the left and only one instance of an entity on the right can be
associated with the relationship. It depicts many-to-one
relationship.
 Many-to-many relationship
• Many-to-many − The following image reflects that more than one
instance of an entity on the left and more than one instance of an
entity on the right can be associated with the relationship. It
depicts many-to-many relationship.
 Participation Constraints
• Total Participation − Each entity is involved in the relationship.
Total participation is represented by double lines.
• Partial participation − Not all entities are involved in the
relationship. Partial participation is represented by single lines.
 Generalization Aggregation
• The ER Model has the power of expressing database entities in a
conceptual hierarchical manner.
• As the hierarchy goes up, it generalizes the view of entities, and as we
go deep in the hierarchy, it gives us the detail of every entity
included.
• Going up in this structure is called generalization, where entities are
clubbed together to represent a more generalized view.
• For example, a particular student named Mira can be generalized
along with all the students.
• The entity shall be a student, and further, the student is a person.
• The reverse is called specialization where a person is a student, and
that student is Mira.
 Generalization
• As mentioned above, the process of generalizing entities, where
the generalized entities contain the properties of all the
generalized entities, is called generalization. In generalization, a
number of entities are brought together into one generalized
entity based on their similar characteristics. For example, pigeon,
house sparrow, crow and dove can all be generalized as Birds.
 Specialization
• Specialization is the opposite of generalization. In specialization, a
group of entities is divided into sub-groups based on their
characteristics. Take a group ‘Person’ for example. A person has
name, date of birth, gender, etc. These properties are common in all
persons, human beings. But in a company, persons can be identified
as employee, employer, customer, or vendor, based on what role
they play in the company.

• Similarly, in a school database, persons can be specialized as teacher,

student, or a staff, based on what role they play in school as entities.
 Inheritance
• We use all the above features of ER-Model in order to create classes
of objects in object-oriented programming. The details of entities are
generally hidden from the user; this process known as abstraction.
• Inheritance is an important feature of Generalization and
Specialization. It allows lower-level entities to inherit the attributes of
higher-level entities.

• For example, the attributes

of a Person class such as name, age,
and gender can be inherited by
lower-level entities such as Student
or Teacher.
 Codd's 12 Rules
• Dr Edgar F. Codd, after his extensive research on the Relational
Model of database systems, came up with twelve rules of his own,
which according to him, a database must obey in order to be
regarded as a true relational database.
• These rules can be applied on any database system that manages
stored data using only its relational capabilities. This is a
foundation rule, which acts as a base for all the other rules.
• Rule 1: Information Rule
• The data stored in a database, may it be user data or metadata,
must be a value of some table cell. Everything in a database must
be stored in a table format.
 Rules 2 to 4
• Rule 2: Guaranteed Access Rule
• Every single data element (value) is guaranteed to be accessible
logically with a combination of table-name, primary-key (row value),
and attribute-name (column value). No other means, such as
pointers, can be used to access data.
• Rule 3: Systematic Treatment of NULL Values
• The NULL values in a database must be given a systematic and
uniform treatment. This is a very important rule because a NULL can
be interpreted as one the following − data is missing, data is not
known, or data is not applicable.
• Rule 4: Active Online Catalog
• The structure description of the entire database must be stored in an
online catalog, known as data dictionary, which can be accessed by
authorized users. Users can use the same query language to access
the catalog which they use to access the database itself.
 Rules 5 to 7
• Rule 5: Comprehensive Data Sub-Language Rule
• A database can only be accessed using a language having linear
syntax that supports data definition, data manipulation, and
transaction management operations. This language can be used
directly or by means of some application. If the database allows
access to data without any help of this language, then it is
considered as a violation.
• Rule 6: View Updating Rule
• All the views of a database, which can theoretically be updated,
must also be updatable by the system.
• Rule 7: High-Level Insert, Update, and Delete Rule
• A database must support high-level insertion, updation, and
deletion. This must not be limited to a single row, that is, it must
also support union, intersection and minus operations to yield sets
of data records.
 Rules 8 & 9
• Rule 8: Physical Data Independence
• The data stored in a database must be independent of the
applications that access the database. Any change in the physical
structure of a database must not have any impact on how the data is
being accessed by external applications.
• Rule 9: Logical Data Independence
• The logical data in a database must be independent of its user’s view
(application). Any change in logical data must not affect the
applications using it. For example, if two tables are merged or one is
split into two different tables, there should be no impact or change
on the user application. This is one of the most difficult rule to apply.
 Rules 10 to 12
• Rule 10: Integrity Independence
• A database must be independent of the application that uses it. All
its integrity constraints can be independently modified without the
need of any change in the application. This rule makes a database
independent of the front-end application and its interface.
• Rule 11: Distribution Independence
• The end-user must not be able to see that the data is distributed
over various locations. Users should always get the impression that
the data is located at one site only. This rule has been regarded as
the foundation of distributed database systems.
• Rule 12: Non-Subversion Rule
• If a system has an interface that provides access to low-level records,
then the interface must not be able to subvert the system and
bypass security and integrity constraints.
 Relation Data Model
• Relational data model is the primary data model, which is used
widely around the world for data storage and processing. This model
is simple and it has all the properties and capabilities required to
process data with storage efficiency.
• Concepts:
• Tables − In relational data model, relations are saved in the format of
Tables. This format stores the relation among entities. A table has
rows and columns, where rows represents records and columns
represent the attributes.
• Tuple − A single row of a table, which contains a single record for that
relation is called a tuple.
• Relation instance − A finite set of tuples in the relational database
system represents relation instance. Relation instances do not have
duplicate tuples.
 Contd..
• Relation schema − A relation schema describes the relation name
(table name), attributes, and their names.
• Relation key − Each row has one or more attributes, known as
relation key, which can identify the row in the relation (table)
uniquely.
• Attribute domain − Every attribute has some pre-defined value
scope, known as attribute domain.
• Constraints:
• Every relation has some conditions that must hold for it to be a
valid relation. These conditions are called Relational Integrity
Constraints. There are three main integrity constraints −
– Key constraints
– Domain constraints
– Referential integrity constraints
 Key Constraints
• There must be at least one minimal subset of attributes in the
relation, which can identify a tuple uniquely.
• This minimal subset of attributes is called key for that relation.
• If there are more than one such minimal subsets, these are
called candidate keys.
• Key constraints force that −
• in a relation with a key attribute, no two tuples can have identical
values for key attributes.
• a key attribute can not have NULL values.

*Key constraints are also referred to as Entity Constraints.

 Domain Constraints
• Attributes have specific values in real-world scenario. For example,
age can only be a positive integer. The same constraints have been
tried to employ on the attributes of a relation. Every attribute is
bound to have a specific range of values. For example, age cannot be
less than zero and telephone numbers cannot contain a digit outside
0-9.
• Referential integrity Constraints:
• Referential integrity constraints work on the concept of Foreign Keys.
A foreign key is a key attribute of a relation that can be referred in
other relation.
• Referential integrity constraint states that if a relation refers to a key
attribute of a different or same relation, then that key element must
exist.
 Relational Algebra
• Relational database systems are expected to be equipped with a
query language that can assist its users to query the database
instances.
• There are two kinds of query languages − relational algebra and
relational calculus.
• Relational Algebra:
• Relational algebra is a procedural query language, which takes
instances of relations as input and yields instances of relations as
output.
• It uses operators to perform queries.
• An operator can be either unary or binary.
• They accept relations as their input and yield relations as their
output.
• Relational algebra is performed recursively on a relation and
intermediate results are also considered relations.
 Operations in Relational Algebra
• The fundamental operations of relational algebra are as
follows −
– Select
– Project
– Union
– Set different
– Cartesian product
– Rename
 Select Operation (σ)
• It selects tuples that satisfy the given predicate from a relation.
• Notation − σp(r)
• Where σ stands for selection predicate and r stands for relation. p is
prepositional logic formula which may use connectors like and,
or, and not. These terms may use relational operators like − =, ≠, ≥, < ,
>, ≤.
• For example −
σsubject = "database"(Books)
• Output − Selects tuples from books where subject is 'database'.
σsubject = "database" and price = "450"(Books)
• Output − Selects tuples from books where subject is 'database' and
'price' is 450.
σsubject = "database" and price = "450" or year > "2010"(Books)
• Output − Selects tuples from books where subject is 'database' and