Data Communication and

Computer Network
Mattu University
Department of Management Information System
 Chapter-Five
OSI Reference Models
Contents
Introduction
Layered Framework of OSI
Overview & functions of each layer
 Bits, Datagram, packet & Frames
 Data Encapsulation & Decapsulation in the OSI Model
 Physical Signaling & Encoding
Introduction
There are n numbers of users who use computer network and are
located over the world.
So, to ensure, national and worldwide data communication, systems
must be developed which are compatible to communicate with each
other ISO has developed a standard.
ISO stands for International organization of Standardization.
This is called a model for Open System Interconnection (OSI) and is
commonly known as OSI model.
Introduction …
OSI is an international standard for conceptualizing the architecture
of computer networks, established by the International Organization
for Standardization (ISO) and the Institute of Electrical and Electronics
Engineers (IEEE), that improves network flexibility.
Layered Framework of OSI
The employs a divide-and-conquer approach, in which network
functions are divided into seven categories, called layers, and
communication standards are established to handle the transfer of
data from one layer to another.
Within each layer, protocols are developed that focus on those layers’
functions, and no others.
Within a network-connected computer, outgoing messages move
down a protocol stack, successively transforming until the data is
ready to be sent out via the physical network.
Layered Framework of OSI …
At the receiving end, the data moves up the stack, undergoing the
mirror image of the transformation process until the data is ready to be
displayed by an application — the calls for a total of seven layers.
From the top of the stack to the bottom, they are: application layer,
presentation layer, session layer, transport layer, network layer, data
link layer, and physical layer.
The lower layers deal with electrical signals, chunks of binary data, and
routing of these data across networks.
Higher levels cover network requests and responses, representation of
data, and network protocols as seen from a user's point of view.
Layered Framework of OSI …
The OSI model was originally conceived as a standard architecture for
building network systems and indeed, many popular network
technologies today reflect the layered design of OSI.
Layered Framework of OSI …
Layer 1
At Layer 1, the Physical layer of the OSI model is responsible for
ultimate transmission of digital data bits from the Physical layer of the
sending (source) device over network communications media to the
Physical layer of the receiving (destination) device.
Examples of layer 1 technologies include Ethernet cables and hubs.
Additionally, hubs and other repeaters are standard network devices
that function at the Physical layer, as are cable connectors.
At the Physical layer, data are transmitted using the type of signaling
supported by the physical medium: electric voltages, radio frequencies,
or pulses of infrared or ordinary light.
Layer 1 …
In general, the Physical layer:
 Moves bits across the media.
 Defines cables, connectors, and pin positions.
 Specifies electrical signals (voltage, bit synchronization).
 Defines the physical topology (network layout).
 Data encoding is also done in this layer.
Protocols in layer 1 are: EIA/TIA 232 (serial signaling), V.35 (modem
signaling), Cat5, and RJ45.
Layer 2
When obtaining data from the Physical layer, the Data Link layer
checks and corrects for physical transmission errors and packages bits
into data "frames".
At the data link layer, directly connected nodes are used to perform
node-to-node data transfer.
The Data Link layer also manages physical addressing schemes such
as MAC addresses for Ethernet networks, controlling access of any
various network devices to the physical medium.
Layer 2 …
Because the Data Link layer is the single most complex layer in the OSI
model, it is often divided into two parts, the Media Access Control sub-
layer and the Logical Link Control sub-layer.
The uppermost sublayer is Logical Link Control (LLC) sublayer
multiplexes protocols running atop the data link layer, and optionally
provides flow control, acknowledgment, and error recovery.
The LLC provides addressing and control of the data link.
It specifies which mechanisms are to be used for addressing stations
over the transmission medium and for controlling the data exchanged
between the originator and recipient machines.
Layer 2 …
The sublayer below it is Media Access Control (MAC).
Sometimes this refers to the sublayer that determines who is allowed to access
the media at any one time.
Other times it refers to a frame structure with MAC addresses inside.
There are generally two forms of media access control: distributed and centralized.
Both of these may be compared to communication between people: The Media
Access Control sublayer also determines where one frame of data ends and the
next one starts.
There are four means of doing that: a time based, character counting, byte stuffing
and bit stuffing.
Layer 2 …
At Layer 2, unicast refers to sending frames from one node to a single
other node, whereas multicast denotes sending traffic from one node to
multiple nodes, and broadcasting refers to the transmission of frames to
all nodes in a network.
A broadcast domain is a logical division of a network in which all nodes
of that network can be reached at Layer 2 by a broadcast. Layer 2
devices are Bridges, Modems, Network cards, 2-layer switches.
LAN protocols: 802.2 (LLC), 802.3 (Ethernet), 802.5 (Token Ring), 802.11
(Wireless)
WAN protocols: PPP, Frame Relay, ISDN
Layer 3
The Network layer adds the concept of routing above the Data Link
layer.
When data arrives at the Network layer, the source and destination
addresses contained inside each frame are examined to determine if
the data has reached its final destination.
If the data has reached the final destination, this layer 3 formats the
data into packets delivered up to the Transport layer.
Otherwise, the Network layer updates the destination address and
pushes the frame back down to the lower layers.
Layer 3 …
To support routing, the Network layer maintains logical addresses such as IP
addresses for devices on the network.
The Network layer also manages the mapping between these logical
addresses and physical addresses.
In IP networking, this mapping is accomplished through the Address
Resolution Protocol (ARP).
Layer 3 protocols and technologies allow for network-to-network
communications.
A Layer 3 switch is simply a Layer 2 device that also does routing (a Layer 3
function).
Layer 3 …
A bridge router or brouter is a network device that works as a bridge
and as a router.
The brouter routes packets for known protocols and simply forwards all
other packets as a bridge would.
Brouters operate at both the network layer for routable protocols and
at the data link layer for non-routable protocols.
So much of what we do as network administrators -- dealing with IP
addresses and subnetting, routing protocols, firewall rules and Access
Control Lists (ACLs), and many types of Quality of Service (QoS) -- is
enabled by Layer 3 technologies.
Layer 3 …
Protocols in this layer are: IP, IPX and AppleTalk
The network layer is considered the backbone of the OSI Model.
It selects and manages the best logical path for data transfer between
nodes.
This layer contains hardware devices such as routers, bridges,
firewalls and switches, but it actually creates a logical image of the
most efficient communication route and implements it with a physical
medium.
Layer 3 …
Network layer protocols exist in every host or router.
The router examines the header fields of all the IP packets that pass
through it.
In the OSI model, the network layer responds to requests from the
layer above it (transport layer) and issues requests to the layer below
it (data link layer).
Layer 4
The transport layer manages the delivery and error checking of data
packets.
It regulates the size, sequencing, and ultimately the transfer of data
between systems and hosts.
One of the most common examples of the transport layer is TCP or the
Transmission Control Protocol.
The basic function of the Transport layer is to accept data from the layer
above, split it up into smaller units, pass these data units to the Network
layer, and ensure that all the pieces arrive correctly at the other end.
Layer 4 …
Furthermore, all this must be done efficiently and in a way that isolates the upper
layers from the inevitable changes in the hardware technology.
The Transport layer also determines what type of service to provide to the Session
layer, and, ultimately, to the users of the network.
The most popular type of transport connection is an error-free point-to-point
channel that delivers messages or bytes in the order in which they were sent.
The Transport layer is a true end-to-end layer, all the way from the source to the
destination.
In other words, a program on the source machine carries on a conversation with a
similar program on the destination machine, using the message headers and
control messages.
Layer 4 …
Functions of Transport Layer:
 Service Point Addressing: Transport Layer header includes service point
address which is port address. This layer gets the message to the correct
process on the computer unlike Network Layer, which gets each packet to the
correct computer.
 Segmentation and Reassembling: A message is divided into segments; each
segment contains sequence number, which enables this layer in reassembling
the message. Message is reassembled correctly upon arrival at the
destination and replaces packets which were lost in transmission.
 Connection Control: It includes 2 types:
Layer 4 …
• Connectionless Transport Layer: Each segment is considered as an
independent packet and delivered to the transport layer at the
destination machine.
• Connection Oriented Transport Layer: Before delivering packets,
connection is made with transport layer at the destination machine.
 Flow Control: In this layer, flow control is performed end to end.
 Error Control: Error Control is performed end to end in this layer to ensure
that the complete message arrives at the receiving transport layer without
any error. Error Correction is done through retransmission.
Layer 5
The Session Layer allows users on different machines to establish
active communication sessions between them.
Its main aim is to establish, maintain and synchronize the interaction
between communicating systems.
Session layer manages and synchronize the conversation between
two different applications.
In Session layer, streams of data are marked and are resynchronized
properly, so that the ends of the messages are not cut prematurely
and data loss is avoided.
Layer 5 …
Functions of Session Layer:
 Dialog Control: This layer allows two systems to start communication with
each other in half-duplex or full-duplex.
 Token Management: This layer prevents two parties from attempting the
same critical operation at the same time.
 Synchronization: This layer allows a process to add checkpoints which are
considered as synchronization points into stream of data. Example: If a system
is sending a file of 800 pages, adding checkpoints after every 50 pages is
recommended. This ensures that 50-page unit is successfully received and
acknowledged. This is beneficial at the time of crash as if a crash happens at
page number 110; there is no need to retransmit 1 to100 pages.
Layer 5 …
Network File System (NFS) and Apple Session Protocol (ASP) are the
protocols used in this layer.
Gateways, Firewalls, PC's are devices in this layer.
Layer 6
As layer six of the OSI model, the presentation layer is primarily
responsible for managing two networking characteristics: protocol
and architecture.
Whereas, protocol defines a standard set of guidelines under which
the network operates, the network's architecture determines what
protocol applies.
As the translator, the presentation layer converts the data sent by the
application layer of the transmitting node into an acceptable and
compatible data format based on the applicable network protocol and
architecture.
Layer 6 …
Upon arrival at the receiving computer, the presentation layer
translates the data into an acceptable format usable by the
application layer.
In other words, the presentation layer takes care of any issues
occurring when transmitted data must be viewed in a format different
from the original format.
As a functional part of the OSI model, the presentation layer
performs a multitude of data conversion algorithms and character
translation functions:
Layer 6 …
 The first function is:
• Character-Code Translation: Where the presentation layer translates from
the American standard code for information interchange (ASCII) to the
extended binary code decimal interchange code (EBCDIC).
 The second function is:
• Data Conversion: This is where the presentation layer performs bit order
reversal functions, converts CR (byte code for a carriage return) to CR/LF,
(byte code for a carriage return with a line feed) and converts integer
numbers to floating point numbers.
Layer 6 …
 Third, the presentation layer is responsible for:
• Data Compression, by reducing the number of bits requiring transmission,
which improves the data throughput.
 The fourth function is:
• Data Encryption and Decryption: Encryption is needed for security
purposes when sending data across networks. An encryption algorithm is
used during transmission, while a decryption algorithm is used at the
receiving node. Encryption and decryption typically involve the secure
sockets layer (SSL) protocol, which has become more popular when used
by the presentation layer.
Layer 6 …
 The fifth function of the presentation layer is:
• Data Translation: Networks provide the capability of connecting different types
of computers, servers and mainframes on the same network and may employ
different character sets. The presentation layer is responsible for fixing any
irregularities while making translations transparent between networked systems
Protocols are:
 JPEG, BMP, TIFF, PICT
 MPEG, WMV, AVI
 ASCII, EBCDIC
 MIDI, WAV
Layer 7
Application Layer is the OSI layer closest to the end user, which
means that both the OSI application layer and the user interact
directly with the software application.
This layer interacts with software applications that implement a
communicating component.
Such application programs fall outside the scope of the OSI model.
Application layer functions typically include identifying
communication partners, determining resource availability, and
synchronizing communication.
Layer 7 …
When identifying communication partners, the application layer
determines the identity and availability of communication partners for
an application with data to transmit.
When determining resource availability, the application layer must
decide whether sufficient network or the requested communication
exist.
In synchronizing communication, all communication between
applications requires cooperation that is managed by the application
layer.
Some examples of application layer implementations also include:
Layer 7 …
On OSI stack:
 File Transfer and Access Management Protocol (FTAM)
 X.400 Mail
 Common Management Information Protocol (CMIP)
 On TCP/IP stack:
 Hypertext Transfer Protocol (HTTP)
 File Transfer Protocol (FTP)
 Simple Mail Transfer Protocol (SMTP)
 Simple Network Management Protocol (SNMP)
Bits, Datagram, packet & Frames
As application data is passed down the protocol stack on its way to be
transmitted across the network media, various protocols add information to
it at each level.
This is commonly known as the encapsulation process.
The form that a piece of data takes at any layer is called a protocol data unit
(PDU).
During encapsulation, each succeeding layer encapsulates the PDU that it
receives from the layer above in accordance with the protocol being used.
At each stage of the process, a PDU has a different name to reflect its new
functions.
Bits, Datagram, packet & Frames …
Transport layer Segment
Transport layer Segment …
Source port:
 16 Bit number which identifies the Source Port number (Sending Computer's
TCP Port).
Destination port:
 16 Bit number which identifies the Destination Port number (Receiving Port).
Sequence number:
 32 Bit number used for byte level numbering of TCP segments.
 If you are using TCP, each byte of data is assigned a sequence number.
Transport layer Segment …
 If SYN flag is set (during the initial three-way handshake connection initiation),
then this is the initial sequence number.
 The sequence number of the actual first data byte will then be this sequence
number plus 1.
 For example, let the first byte of data by a device in a particular TCP header
will have its sequence number in this field 50000.
 If this packet has 500 bytes of data in it, then the next packet sent by this
device will have the sequence number of 50000 + 500 + 1 = 50501.
Transport layer Segment …
Acknowledgment Number:
 32 Bit number field which indicates the next sequence number that the
sending device is expecting from the other device.
Header Length:
 4 Bit field which shows the number of 32-Bit words in the header.
 Also known as the Data Offset field.
 The minimum size header is 5 words (binary pattern is 0101).
Reserved: Always set to 0 (Size 6 bits).
Transport layer Segment …
Control Bit Flags:
 We have seen before that TCP is a Connection Oriented Protocol.
 The meaning of Connection Oriented Protocol is that, before any data can be
transmitted, a reliable connection must be obtained and acknowledged.
 Control Bits govern the entire process of connection establishment, data
transmissions and connection termination.
 The control bits are listed as follows:
• Urgent Pointer (URG): If this bit field is set, the receiving TCP should
interpret the urgent pointer field.
Transport layer Segment …
• PSH: This flag means Push function. Using this flag, TCP allows a sending
application to specify that the data must be pushed immediately. When
an application requests the TCP to push data, the TCP should send the
data that has accumulated without waiting to fill the segment.
• RST: Reset the connection. The RST bit is used to RESET the TCP
connection due to unrecoverable errors. When an RST is received in a TCP
segment, the receiver must respond by immediately terminating the
connection. A RESET causes both sides immediately to release the
connection and all its resources. As a result, transfer of data ceases in
both directions, which can result in loss of data that is in transit. A TCP RST
indicates an abnormal termination of the connection.
Transport layer Segment …
• SYN: This flag means synchronize sequence numbers. Source is beginning
a new counting sequence. In other words, the TCP segment contains the
sequence number of the first sent byte (ISN).
• FIN: No more data from the sender. Receiving a TCP segment with the FIN
flag does not mean that transferring data in the opposite direction is not
possible. Because TCP is a fully duplex connection, the FIN flag will cause
the closing of connection only in one direction. To close a TCP connection
gracefully, applications use the FIN flag.
Transport layer Segment …
 Window:
• indicates the size of the receive window, which specifies the number of
bytes beyond the sequence number in the acknowledgment field that the
receiver is currently willing to receive.
 Checksum:
• The 16-bit checksum field is used for error-checking of the header and
data.
Transport layer Segment …
 Urgent Pointer:
• Shows the end of the urgent data so that interrupted data streams can
continue.
• When the URG bit is set, the data is given priority over other data streams
(Size 16 bits).
Transport layer Datagram
UDP wraps datagrams with a UDP header, which contains four fields
totaling eight bytes.
Transport layer Datagram …
Source port:
 The port of the device sending the data.
 This field can be set to zero if the destination computer doesn’t need to reply
to the sender.
Destination port:
 The port of the device receiving the data.
 UDP port numbers can be between 0 and 65,535.
Transport layer Datagram …
Length:
 Specifies the number of bytes comprising the UDP header and the UDP
payload data.
 The limit for the UDP length field is determined by the underlying IP protocol
used to transmit the data.
Checksum:
 The checksum allows the receiving device to verify the integrity of the packet
header and payload.
 It is optional in IPv4 but was made mandatory in IPv6.
Transport layer Datagram …
 A checksum to verify that the end to end data has not been corrupted by routers or
bridges in the network or by the processing in an end system.
 The algorithm to compute the checksum is the Standard Internet Checksum
algorithm.
 This allows the receiver to verify that it was the intended destination of the packet,
because it covers the IP addresses, port numbers and protocol number, and it
verifies that the packet is not truncated or padded, because it covers the size field.
 Therefore, this protects an application against receiving corrupted payload data in
place of, or in addition to, the data that was sent.
 In the cases where this check is not required, the value of 0x0000 is placed in this
field, in which case the data is not checked by the receiver.
Network layer Packet: IPv4 Packet Header
Network layer Packet: IPv4 Packet Header …
Length of packet:
 Some networks have fixed-length packets, while others rely on the header to
contain this information.
Synchronization:
 A few bits that help the packet match up to the network.
Packet number:
 Which packet this is in a sequence of packets.
Network layer Packet: IPv4 Packet Header …
Destination address:
 Here’s the 32-bit destination IP address.
Protocol:
 On networks that carry multiple types of information, the protocol defines what
type of packet is being transmitted: e-mail, Web page, streaming video.
 This 8-bit field tells us which protocol is encapsulated in the IP packet, for
example TCP has value 6 and UDP has value 17.
Originating address:
 Here you will find the 32-bit source IP address.
Network layer Packet: IPv4 Packet Header …
Fragment Offset:
 This 13-bit field specifies the position of the fragment in the original fragmented
IP packet.
Time to Live:
 Every time an IP packet passes through a router, the time to live field is
decremented by 1.
 Once it hits 0 the router will drop the packet and sends an ICMP time exceeded
message to the sender.
 The time to live field has 8 bits and is used to prevent packets from looping
around forever (if you have a routing loop).
Network layer Packet: IPv4 Packet Header …
Header Checksum:
 This 16-bit field is used to store a checksum of the header.
 The receiver can use the checksum to check if there are any errors in the
header.
IP Option:
 This field is not used often, is optional and has a variable length based on the
options that were used.
 When you use this field, the value in the header length field will increase.
Data Link Layer Frame
A frame is a unit of communication in the data link layer.
Data link layer takes the packets from the Network Layer and
encapsulates them into frames.
If the frame size becomes too large, then the packet may be divided
into small sized frames.
At receiver’ end, data link layer picks up signals from hardware and
assembles them into frames.
Data Link Layer Frame …
Data Link Layer Frame …
Frame Header:
 It contains the source and the destination addresses of the frame and the
control bytes.
 A frame header contains the destination address, the source address and
three control fields kind, seq, and ack serving the following purposes:
• Kind: This field states whether the frame is a data frame or it is used for
control functions like error and flow control or link management etc.
• seq: This contains the sequence number of the frame for rearrangement
of out – of – sequence frames and sending acknowledgements by the
receiver.
Data Link Layer Frame …
• ack: This contains the acknowledgement number of some frame,
particularly when piggybacking is used.
Payload field:
 It contains the message to be delivered.
Trailer:
 It contains the error detection and error correction bits. It is also called Frame
Check Sequence (FCS).
Flag:
 Two flag at the two ends mark the beginning and the end of the frame.
Data Encapsulation in the OSI Model
Data Encapsulation in the OSI Model…
The computer in the above picture needs to send some data to another
computer.
The Application layer is where the user interface exists, here the user
interacts with the application he or she is using, then this data is passed
to the Presentation layer and then to the Session layer.
These three layers add some extra information to the original data that
came from the user and then passes it to the Transport layer.
Here the data is broken into smaller pieces (one piece at a time
transmitted) and the TCP header is a added. At this point, the data at
the Transport layer is called a segment.
Data Encapsulation in the OSI Model…
Each segment is sequenced so the data stream can be put back
together on the receiving side exactly as transmitted.
Each segment is then handed to the Network layer for network
addressing (logical addressing) and routing through the internet
network.
At the Network layer, we call the data (which includes at this point
the transport header and the upper layer information) a packet.
The Network layer add its IP header and then sends it off to the
Datalink layer.
Data Encapsulation in the OSI Model…
Here we call the data (which includes the Network layer header,
Transport layer header and upper layer information) a frame.
The Datalink layer is responsible for taking packets from the Network
layer and placing them on the network medium (cable).
The Datalink layer encapsulates each packet in a frame which
contains the hardware address (MAC) of the source and destination
computer (host) and the LLC information which identifies to which
protocol in the previous layer (Network layer) the packet should be
passed when it arrives to its destination.
Data Encapsulation in the OSI Model…
Also, at the end, you will notice the FCS field which is the Frame Check
Sequence.
This is used for error checking and is also added at the end by the Datalink
layer.
If the destination computer is on a remote network, then the frame is sent
to the router or gateway to be routed to the destination.
To put this frame on the network, it must be put into a digital signal.
Since a frame is really a logical group of 1's and 0's, the Physical layer is
responsible for encapsulating these digits into a digital signal which is read
by devices on the same local network.
Data Encapsulation in the OSI Model…
There are also a few 1's and 0's put at the beginning of the frame,
only so the receiving end can synchronize with the digital signal it will
be receiving.
Data Decapsulation in the OSI Model
Data Decapsulation in the OSI Model …
The receiving computer will firstly synchronize with the digital signal
by reading the few extra 1's and 0's as mentioned above.
Once the synchronization is complete and it receives the whole frame
and passes it to the layer above it which is the Datalink layer.
The Datalink layer will do a Cyclic Redundancy Check (CRC) on the
frame.
This is a computation which the computer does and if the result it
gets matches the value in the FCS field, then it assumes that the
frame has been received without any errors.
Data Decapsulation in the OSI Model …
Once that's out of the way, the Datalink layer will strip off any
information or header which was put on by the remote system's
Datalink layer and pass the rest (now we are moving from the
Datalink layer to the Network layer, so we call the data a packet) to
the above layer which is the Network layer.
At the Network layer the IP address is checked and if it matches (with
the machine's own IP address) then the Network layer header, or IP
header if you like, is stripped off from the packet and the rest is
passed to the above layer which is the Transport layer.
Here the rest of the data is now called a segment.
Data Decapsulation in the OSI Model …
The segment is processed at the Transport layer, which rebuilds the
data stream (at this level on the sender's computer it was actually
split into pieces so they can be transferred) and acknowledges to the
transmitting computer that it received each piece.
It is obvious that since we are sending an ACK back to the sender
from this layer that we are using TCP and not UDP.
After all that, it then happily hands the data stream to the upper-layer
application.
Data Decapsulation in the OSI Model …
You will find that when analyzing the way data travels from one
computer to another most people never analyze in detail any layers
above the Transport layer.
This is because the whole process of getting data from one computer
to another involves usually layers 1 to 4 (Physical to Transport) or
layer 5 (Session) at the most, depending on the type of data.
Physical Signaling & Encoding
Physical Signaling & Encoding …
Encoding and signaling are the main functions of layer one of the OSI
reference model, physical layer.
At the data-link layer, frames are in the form of bits (zeros and ones),
but when they get down to the physical layer, they get turned into
other formats that the physical layer understands ; in this case they
are transformed into signals, because they need to be carried
through cables and devices, which reside at the same layer, hence
encoding and signaling.
Physical Signaling & Encoding …
Physical Signaling & Encoding …
In order for data to be recognized by both sender and receiver, it
must be put in a specific order, or grouped, or encoded into patters.
Devices must adhere to some rules when encoding data so that when
it is received at the destination, it would be easily understandable by
means of being subjected to the same rules, or decoding process.
Thus, data is accumulated at the data-link layer as a frame, encoded
into patterns recognized by layer 1 devices, travels as signals onto
media (e.g. cables, wireless), then received by the layer 1 of the
destination and decoded so as to be handed up to the upper layer as
a frame again.
Physical Signaling & Encoding …
In addition to grouping data bits into patterns, encoding has got
another function which is control information.
As you know, a cable, on which bits in the form of signals are
transmitted, is busy with signals containing zeros and ones, and to
distinguish between what bits are the actual traveled data and what bits
are non-wanted noise is very difficult; so, a method to tell the difference
is required.
For that reason, control information is utilized.
This information is in the form of zeros and ones that indicate where a
frame starts and where the frame ends.
Physical Signaling & Encoding …
Physical Signaling & Encoding …
Therefore, frames are put in a string of binary bits, comprising the control
information that informs where the actual data is located within a stream of
bits, as well as acting as a means of guiding the bits up to the destination by
virtue of signals, whose function is to carry the bits patterns.
So signaling is another function of the physical layer.
Source machine and destination machine do the same thing in terms of
encoding and signaling.
When encoded and signaled frames get out the source machine heading
towards the destination, this latter picks the frames in the form of signals
and reverses the process.
Physical Signaling & Encoding …
In other words, the destination applies the same mechanism to
convert the patterns of physical energy into binary bits, then decoding
the encoded bits to get the actual frame to be handed up to the
upper layers.
bits on media
The methods of representing binary digits on physical media vary and
covering all of them is beyond the scope of this study; However,
providing at least two methods, which are Manchester encoding and
nonreturn to zero (NRZ), to demonstrate how things are going on will
suffice.
These methods have their own distinctive ways of converting a pulse
of energy into a defined amount of time referred to as a bit time.
This latter means how much time a given Network Interface Card at
the OSI model takes generate 1 bit of data and put it onto media in
the form a signal.
bits on media …
So, the way binary bits are represented onto media as a signal
indicates whether it is 0 or 1 at a time.
This is achieved by virtue of three possible variations which are
amplitude, frequency, and phase.
bits on media …
Manchester encoding
This signaling method makes use of whether the amplitude is in a
high or a low position.
If a voltage (amplitude) drops from low to high within the bit time, it
represents a 1; whereas, in case a voltage (amplitude) moves from
high to low, it represents a 0.
If a value is repeated such 1111 or 0000, it is represented by
repeating the same movement of the amplitude.
In addition, moving from one position to another (from high to low,
or vice versa), happens at the edge of the time bit.
Manchester encoding …
Manchester encoding …
This signaling method is not suitable for higher-speed links.
It is rather fitted for lower-speed links such as 10Base-T Ethernet
whose speed is 10 megabits per second.
Nonreturn To Zero (NRZ)
NRZ stands for Nonreturn to Zero.
It is another signaling method in which bits representation lies in the
voltage level within a bit time.
The level of the voltage can either be a 0 or a 1.
More specifically, If the level of the voltage is high, then the voltage
represents 1.
Contrariwise, if the level of the voltage is low, or rather remaining
steady, it is in this case a 0.
Nonreturn To Zero (NRZ) …
But this signaling methods has also some weaknesses which prevent
it from being used in higher-speed links.
It is not inherently a self-clocking signal.
Simply put, a string of 0's or 1's in NRZ prevent the sender and the
receiver clocks from being synchronized.
Nonreturn To Zero (NRZ) …
 The End

Any questions?