Module-2: solar cells

Module 2
Solar cells :
• Various generations
• Semiconductor materials
• Doping
• Fermi level
• PN junction and characteristics
• Photovoltaic effect
• Photovoltaic material
• Parameters of solar cells
• Effects of cell temperature on cell efficiency
• Types of solar cells
• Solar UNIT s and arrays
• Advantages and limitations of solar energy system-
• Solar cell power plant
• Silicon, thin film and polymer processing Silicon wafer based solar cells.
 Introduction

• The conversion efficiency of the “new” silicon cells, developed in 1958,

was 11%, although the cost was prohibitively high ($1000/W).

• The first practical application of solar cells was in space, where cost
was not a barrier, since no other source of power is available.

• Research in the 1960s resulted in the discovery of other PV materials

such as gallium arsenide (GaAs)

• The global installed capacity of PVs at the end of 2011 was 67 GWp
 Introduction
• PV cells are made of various semiconductors, which are materials that are only
moderately good conductors of electricity.

• The materials most commonly used are silicon (Si) and compounds of cadmium
sulfide (CdS), cuprous sulfide (Cu2S), and gallium arsenide (GaAs).

• Amorphous silicon cells are composed of silicon atoms in a thin homogenous layer
rather than a crystal structure.

• Amorphous silicon absorbs light more effectively than crystalline silicon; so the
cells can be thinner. For this reason, amorphous silicon is also known as a thin-film
PV technology.
 Introduction

Amorphous silicon (a-Si) is a glassy alloy of silicon and hydrogen (about 10%). Several
properties make it an attractive material for thin-film solar cells:

• Silicon is abundant and environmentally safe.

• Amorphous silicon absorbs sunlight extremely well, so that only a very thin active
solar cell layer is required (about 1 mm compared with 100 mm or so for
crystalline solar cells), thus greatly reducing solar cell material requirements.

• Thin films of a-Si can be deposited directly on inexpensive support materials such
as glass, sheet steel, or plastic foil.
Different generations of Solar cells
Different generations of Solar cells
 Methods of Harvesting Sunlight

Passive: cheap, efficient design; Solar Thermal: ~30% efficient;

block summer rays; allow winter cost-competitive; requires direct sun;
heats fluid in pipes that then boils
water to drive steam turbine
Solar hot water: up to 50% efficient; several $k to
install; usually keep conventional backup; freeze
protection vital (even in S.D.!!)

Photovoltaic (PV): direct electricity; 15% efficient;

$5 per Watt to install without rebates/incentives;
small fraction of roof covers demand of typ. home
Biofuels, algae, etc. also harvest solar energy, at few % eff.
 Introduction

There are only two methods to generate significant electric

power

• The first is electromagnetic dynamic generation.

• The second method is photovoltaic generation with

no moving parts using solar cells
(technically photovoltaic cells), which produce
electricity from the absorption of electromagnetic
radiation, especially light, predominantly within
semiconductor materials.
 Solar energy & Solar cells

usually glass

protective layer
n-layer
semiconductors junction
p-layer
 How do solar cells work?

Solar cells Sunlight Electrici

transform (solar Photovoltaic ty
sunlight into energy) effect
electricity

this electron
reflection now has
e- more energy
When this
excited
state happens
light
inside a
transmissi absorption material, it is
on called the
absorption photovoltaic
e- e- e- e- effect
ground
state
 How do solar cells work?

• Photovoltaic generation of power is caused by photons of

electromagnetic radiation separating positive and negative
charge carriers in absorbing material.

• If an electric field is present, these charges can produce a

current in an external circuit

• Since solar cells cannot produce power in

darkness, they store some of the energy so it can
be used when light is not available.

• This can be by charging electrochemical storage

batteries and is similar to the process of
photosynthesis in plants.
 How do solar cells work?

• Sunlight shines on the surface of the cell

• Energy is carried through the layers of the cell as

photons

• The photons give their energy over to electrons in

the lower layer

• The electrons use this energy to jump back into

the upper layer and escape into the circuit

• The electrons flowing around the circuit provide

the power to a device.
 How do solar cells work?

e-
n-layer n-layer
junction junction

p-layer p-layer

e-
e- e- e-

e- e- e- + + +
 What is P-N Junction?

• A P-N junction is an interface or a boundary

between two semiconductor material types, namely
the p-type and the n-type, inside a semiconductor.

• In a semiconductor, the P-N junction is created by

the method of doping.

• The P-side or the positive side of the semiconductor

has an excess of holes, and the N-side or the
negative side has an excess of electrons
 Characteristics of P-N junction

• Forward bias: The p-type is linked to the

positive terminal of the voltage potential,
while the n-type is connected to the negative
terminal.

• Reverse bias: The p-type is linked to the

negative terminal of the voltage potential,
while the n-type is connected to the positive
terminal.
 Characteristics of P-N junction

P-N Junction Formula

• The p-n junction formula, which is based on the built-in

potential difference generated by the electric field, is as
follows:
Eo= VTln [ ND – NA / ni2 ]
where,
• The zero-bias junction voltage is E0.
• At room temperature, VT is the thermal voltage of 26
mV.
• The impurity concentrations are denoted by the
letters ND and NA.
• The intrinsic concentration is denoted by ni
 Characteristics of P-N junction

• Zero bias
• Forward bias
• Reverse bias
 Applications of PN Junction Diode

• When the p-n junction diode’s arrangement is reverse-biased, the diode may be
utilised as a photodiode since it is sensitive to light.

• It has the potential to be utilised as a solar cell.

• The diode can be utilised in LED lighting applications when it is forward-biased.

• Many electric circuits utilize it as a rectifier, while varactors employ it as a voltage-

controlled oscillator.
 Key challenge: Improving efficiency

amount of electricity produced

Efficiency =
amount of sunlight received

incoming solar radiation New solar materials

1000 watts/sq meter
800 W heat 200 W electricity
ideally need to be:
— Efficient
— Inexpensive
— Abundant materials
— Non-polluting / non-toxic
What do you think some challenges with solar energy might be?

They don’t
work at They don’t use all the
night or in Sun’s energy
cloudy
weather incoming solar radiation
1000 watts/sq meter

Storage 800 W heat 200 W electricity

 What are solar cells made from?

Most common material = silicon

protection layer First developed for the space program
P-doped Si Highest efficiencies of any type of solar cell
junction Long lifetimes – very stable

B- or Ga-doped SiRequires thick layers of Si  relatively expensive

Rigid & brittle  limits potential applications
Single crystal - 26% Polycrystalline - 20% Amorphous - 13.4%
 Types of Solar cells

• Crystalline silicon cells

• Monocrystalline cells
• Polycrystalline cells
• Thin film solar cells
 Crystalline silicon cells

• Around 90% of solar cells are made from crystalline

silicon (c-Si) wafers which are sliced from large
ingots grown in laboratories.

• Presently, around 90% of the world’s photovoltaics

are based on some variation of silicon, and around
the same percentage of the domestic solar panel,
systems use the crystalline silicon cells.

• Crystalline silicon cells also form the basis for mono

and polycrystalline cells.
 Monocrystalline silicon
cells
• The monocrystalline solar panels are also known as the
single crystal panels.

• They are made from pure silicon crystal which is sliced

into several wafers forming cells.

• These wafers are cut to an octagonal shaped wafer

because of which they get their unique look and
uniform colour.

• They can be easily identified by their black or dark blue

colour, as they are made from pure silicon.
 Monocrystalline silicon
cells

Feature of Monocrystalline Solar Panels

• Monocrystalline solar panels have higher conversion

efficiency which means that they produce more
kW/hour of electricity.

• It is because they are composed of a single silicon crystal

which allows more space for the electrons to move.
 Monocrystalline silicon
cells
Feature of Monocrystalline Solar Panels

• The monocrystalline panels display higher heat resistance as compared

to other panels, which means that their electricity production capacity is
less affected by heat and they produce electricity at a higher efficiency at
high temperatures.

• The monocrystalline panels are more expensive as compared to other

panels since the manufacturing process of single-crystal silicon cells is
complex.
 Monocrystalline silicon
cells
Advantages

• They have the highest level of efficiency at 15-20%

• They require less space compared to other types due to their high
efficiency

• Manufacturers state that this form of solar cell lasts the longest, with
most giving them a 25-year warranty

• They perform better in low levels of sunlight, making them ideal for
cloudy areas
 Monocrystalline silicon
cells
Disadvantages

• They are the most expensive solar cells on the market, and so not
in everyone’s price range

• The performance levels tend to suffer from an increase in

temperature. However, it is a small loss when compared to other
forms of solar cell

• There is a lot of waste material when the silicon is cut during

manufacture
 Polycrystalline silicon cells

• The polycrystalline solar panels were first

introduced to the public in 1981.

• Unlike the monocrystalline cells, polycrystalline

ones do not require each of the four sides to be
cut.

• Instead, the silicon is melted and poured into

square moulds. These then form perfectly
shaped square cells.
 Polycrystalline silicon cells

Advantages

• The manufacturing process is cheaper and easier than the

monocrystalline cells

• It avoids silicon waste

• High temperatures have less negative effects on efficiency

compared with monocrystalline cells.

• This makes the polycrystalline cells more attractive to

people in warmer areas as the price is lower.
 Polycrystalline silicon cells

Disadvantages

• Efficiency is only around 13-16% due to low levels of silicon

purity. So they are not the most efficient on the market

• They have lower output rates which make them less space
efficient. So more roof space is needed for installation
 Thin film solar cells

• Thin film solar cells are manufactured by placing several thin

layers of photovoltaic on top of each other to creates the
module.

• There are actually a few different types of thin film solar cell, and
the way in which they differ from each other comes down to the
material used for the PV layers.

• The types are as follows:

• Amorphous silicon
• Cadmium telluride
• Copper indium gallium selenide
• Organic PV cells
 Thin film solar cells

• Depending on the technology that has been used, the

efficiency rates for thin film solar cells tends to vary from
7% to 13%.

• Since 2002, the knowledge levels and popularity for thin

film solar cells has risen dramatically, which also means
that research and development have been increased.

• Due to this, we can expect future models to hold

efficiency rates of 10-16%.
 Thin film solar cells

Advantages

• They can be manufactured to be flexible, making them

widely applicable to a range of situations and building
types

• Mass production is easy to achieve, making them

potentially cheaper to produce than crystalline solar cells

• Shading has a similar effect on their efficiency

 Thin film solar cells

Disadvantages

• They are not ideal for domestic use as thy take up a lot of
space

• Low space efficiency means that they will cause further

expenses in the form of enhancers, like cables of support
structures

• They have a shorter lifespan and so shorter warranty

periods
 Effect of cell temperature on cell efficiency

• Like all other semiconductor devices, solar cells are

sensitive to temperature.

• Increases in temperature reduce the bandgap of a

semiconductor, thereby effecting most of the
semiconductor material parameters.
 Effect of cell temperature on cell efficiency

• The decrease in the band gap of a semiconductor with increasing

temperature can be viewed as increasing the energy of the electrons in
the material.

• Lower energy is therefore needed to break the bond.

• In the bond model of a semiconductor bandgap, a reduction in the

bond energy also reduces the bandgap.

• Therefore increasing the temperature reduces the bandgap.

• In a solar cell, the parameter most affected by an increase in

temperature is the open-circuit voltage.

• The impact of increasing temperature is shown in the figure below.

 Doping

• Doping is a technique used to vary the number of electrons and holes

in semiconductors.

• Doping creates N-type material when semiconductor materials from

group IV are doped with group V atoms.

• P-type materials are created when semiconductor materials from group

IV are doped with group III atoms.

• N-type materials increase the conductivity of a semiconductor by

increasing the number of available electrons; P-type materials increase
conductivity by increasing the number of holes present.
Doping
 Cells, Modules, Panels and Arrays

• Photovoltaic cells are connected electrically in series

and/or parallel circuits to produce higher voltages,
currents and power levels.

• Photovoltaic modules consist of PV cell circuits sealed in

an environmentally protective laminate, and are the
fundamental building blocks of PV systems.

• Photovoltaic panels include one or more PV modules

assembled as a pre-wired, field-installable unit.

• A photovoltaic array is the complete power-generating

unit, consisting of any number of PV modules and panels.
 Solar array

• A solar array is a collection of multiple solar panels

that generate electricity as a system.

• When an installer talks about solar arrays, they’re

typically describing the solar panels themselves and
how they are situated.

• Sunlight hits the panels in an array and produces direct

current (DC) electricity.

• The array is connected to an inverter system, and the

inverter converts the DC electricity to usable
alternating current (AC) electricity.
 Photovoltaic array connection

• The size of a photovoltaic array can consist of a few

individual PV modules or panels connected together in
an urban environment and mounted on a rooftop, or
may consist of many hundreds of PV panels
interconnected together in a field to supply power for a
whole town or neighborhood.

• The flexibility of the modular photovoltaic array (PV

system) allows designers to create solar power systems
that can meet a wide variety of electrical needs, no
matter how large or small.
Photovoltaic array connection
 Features of a Solar Array

• A solar array prohibits light reflection. Thus, it can hold the electricity from the sun’s rays
for a long time.

• It has a distinct layout and comes in different sizes for small and large area installations.

• A solar cell array is lightweight but has a sturdy composition. It can hold the panels
together efficiently.

• It can function under harsh climatic conditions without causing failures.

• It has a simple design and is easy to install. Solar cell arrays have a shelf life of 25 years.

• These arrays are useful for both residential and commercial applications.
Solar cell power plant
 Top five largest solar power plants in the world

• Bhadla Solar Park, India – 2.25GW

• Huanghe Hydropower Hainan Solar Park, China – 2.2GW

• Shakti Sthala solar power project, India – 2GW

• Benban Solar Park, Egypt – 1.65GW

• 5. Tengger Desert Solar Park, China – 1.55GW

 Advantages of Solar Energy Systems

• This system of energy conversion is noiseless and cheap

• Maintainance cost is low.
• They are highly reliable.
• Having long life.
• Pollution free.
• Suitable for mobile laods such as cars, buses etc.
 Advantages cntd....

• No fuel is required.
• These systems are suitable for rural,remote and isolated areas.
• Modularity in operation.
• System modularity allows users to start with small system for single
applications and add on to their systems as their needs increase.
 Limitations of Solar Energy Systems

• Initial cost is high.

• Irregular supply of solar energy.
• Require storage batteries for supply power during night.
• Low efficiency.
• Solar power plants require large area.
• Do not generate power during cloudly season.
 Application of Photovoltaic Systems

• They are suitable for rural areas.

• Pupmping water for drinking and irrgation.
• street light.
• Rural telephone exchanges.
• Battery charging.
• Radio beacons for ship navigation at ports.
• Used in pocket calculators, watches, toys, electric fences etc.
 Applications of a Solar Array

• Since solar arrays help generate electricity, users can utilize them to charge electric devices
like mobiles, laptops, heaters, air conditioners, coolers, television, washing machines, and
other household appliances.

• The solar cell array can be used in domestic and light industrial applications.

• The large-sized solar arrays can be used in powering updraft towers, solar satellites, large-
scale renewable energy systems, and industrial processes and units.

• You can use solar arrays to conserve energy.

• It is essential for greenhouse heating.