UNIT II

MANUFACTURING
PROCESS
CASTING PROCESS:-
Definition of casting: - Casting is one of the earliest metal shaping methods known to human being. It generally means pouring molten
metal into a refractory mould with a cavity of the shape to be made and allowing it to solidify. When solidified, the desired metal object is
taken out from the refractory mould either by breaking the mould or taking the mould apart. The solidified object is called casting. This
process is also called founding.
Casting Terms:-
Flask:-A moulding flask is one which holds the sand mould intact. It is made up of wood for temporary applications or more generally of
metal for long term use.
Drag: - Lower moulding flask.
Cope:-Upper moulding flask.
Cheek:-Intermediate moulding flask used in three piece moulding.
Pattern:-Pattern is a replica of the final object to be made with some modifications.
The mould cavity is made with the help of the pattern.
Parting line:-This is the dividing line between the two moulding flasks that makes up the sand mould. In split pattern it is also the dividing line
between the two halves of the pat tern.
Bottom board: - This is a board which is normally made of wood and is used at the start of the mould making. The pattern is first kept on the
bottom board, sand is sprinkled on it and then the ramming is done in the drag.
Facing sand:-The small amount of carbonaceous material sprinkled on the inner surface of the moulding cavity to give better surface finish to
the castings.
Moulding sand:-It is the freshly prepared refractory material used for making the mould cavity. It is a mixture of silica, clay and moisture in
appropriate proportions to get the desired results and it surrounds the pattern while making the mould.
Backing sand:-It is what constitutes most of the refractory material found in the mould. This is made up of used and burnt sand. Core: - It is
used for making hollow cavities in castings.
Pouring basin: - A small funnel shaped cavity at the top of the mould into which the molten metal is poured.
Sprue:-The passage through which the molten metal from the pouring basin reaches the mould cavity. In many cases it controls the flow of
metal into the mould.
Runner:-The passageways in the parting plane through which molten metal flow is regulated before they reach the mould cavity.
Gate: - The actual entry point through which molten metal enters mould cavity.
Chaplet:-Chaplets are used to support cores inside the mould cavity to take care of its own weight and overcome the metallostatic forces.
Chill: - Chills are metallic objects which are placed in the mould to increase the cooling rate of castings to provide uniform or desired cooling
rate.
Riser:-It is a reservoir of molten metal provided in the casting so that hot metal can flow back into the mould cavity when there is a reduction
in volume of metal due to solidification.
Steps in casting :-
The whole process of producing casting may be classified in to five steps as follows :
(i) Pattern making :-The pattern is an exact fascimile or replica of the article to be cast. The patterns are designed and prepared as per the
drawing.
(ii) Moulding and core making :-The moulds are prepared in either sand or similar materials with the help of patterns so that a cavity of the
designed shape is produced. To obtain hollow portions, cores are prepared separately in core boxes. The moulds and cores are then baked to
impart strength and finally assembled for pouring. Moulding can be done either manually or by machines depending on the output required.
Provision of gates and risers are also made for flow of molten metal.
(iii) Melting & casting:- Correct composition of molten metal is melted in a suitable surface and poured into the moulds. The moulds are then
allowed to cooldown for the metal to solidify. The castings are finally extracted by breaking the moulds.
(iv) Fettling:- The castings as obtained after solidification carry unwanted projections. Also sand particles tend to adhere to the surface of
castings. The castings are therefore sent to fettling section when the projections are cut off and surface cleaned for further work. The casting
may also need heat treatment depending on the specific properties required.
(v) Testing & Inspection :-Finally, before the casting is despatched from foundry, it is tested and inspected to ensure that it is flawless and
confirms to the specifications desired.
Patterns: - a pattern is a replica of the object to be made by the casting process, with some modifications. The main modifications are:
(a) The addition of pattern allowances,
(b) The provision of core prints, and
(c) Elimination of fine details which cannot be obtained by casting and hence are to be obtained by further processing.
Pattern Allowances: - Modifications that are incorporated into the pattern are called allowance.
1.Shrinkage:-
Shrinkage allowance is a critical aspect of manufacturing processes that involves compensating for the reduction in size that occurs when
materials cool and solidify after casting or molding. By intentionally increasing the dimensions of a pattern, shrinkage allowance ensures that
the final product attains the desired size and shape, accounting for the material’s characteristic shrinkage during the cooling and
solidification
• Liquid shrinkage is the contraction that occurs as the alloy cools but remains in its liquid state..
• Liquid-to-solid shrinkage (also known as solidification shrinkage) occurs as the alloy changes from a liquid to a solid.
• Solid shrinkage is the continued shrinkage that occurs as the solid metal casting cools to ambient temperature in its solid state..

2.Finish or Machining Allowance:-

The finish and accuracy achieved in sand casting are generally poor and therefore when the casting is functionally required to be of good
surface finish or dimensionally accurate, it is generally achieved by subsequent machining. The finish and accuracy achieved in sand casting are
generally poor and therefore when the casting is functionally required to be of good surface finish or dimensionally accurate, it is generally achieved by subsequent
3.Draft allowance:-
At the time of withdrawing the pattern from the sand mould, the vertical faces of the pattern are in continual contact with the sand which
may damage the mould cavity, as shown in fig . To reduce its chances, the vertical faces of the pattern are always tapered from the parting
line (Fig. 3.5(b)). This provision is called draft allowance.
When the pattern is removed from the mold ,the parallel surface to the direction at which the pattern is drawn gets damaged slightly and
gets converted into slightly tapered surface.
For compensation of these changes, these parallel surfaces on pattern are made slightly tapered(nearly 1-2 degree).This allow easy removal
of pattern from the mold and does not effect the casting by anyway. These changes in pattern surface to prevent it from damages are called
draft allowance
4.Shake Allowance
A pattern is shaken or rapped by striking the same with a wooden piece from side to side. This is done so that the pattern a little is
loosened in the mold cavity and can easily. In turn therefore ,rapping enlarges the mold cavity which results in bigger sized casting.
Hence ,a allowance is provided on the pattern i.e the pattern dimensions are kept smaller in order to compensate the enlargement
of mold cavity due to rapping. The magnitude of shake allowance can be reduced by increasing the tapper.
5.Distortion Allowance
All parts do not shrink uniformly i.e some parts shrinks while others are restricted from during so. It is for weaker sections such as
long flat portions, V, U sections. Distortion can be practically eliminated by providing an allowance and constructing the pattern
initially distorted i.e outsize in the opposite direction so that the the casting after cooling neutralizes the initial distortion given on
the pattern and acquire correct shape.
Properties of Moulding Sand:- The moulding sand should possess the following properties:
1. Porosity or permeability: It is that property of sand which permits the steam and other gases to pass through the sand mould. When hot
molten metal is poured into the sand mould, it evolves a great amount of other gases while coming in contact with the moist sand. If these
gases do not escape completely through the mould, the casting will contain gas holes and pores. Thus, the sand from which the mould is
made must be porous or permeable. The porosity of sand depends upon its grain size, grain shape, and moisture and clay contents in the
moulding sand. The quality of sand has directly affects to the porosity of the mould. If the sand is too fine, its porosity will be low.
2. Plasticity:- It is very important to made a mold, that property of sand due to which it flows to all portions of the moulding box and taken a
predetermined shape under hammering pressure and keep this shape when the pressure is removed. The sand must have sufficient plasticity
to produce a good mould. The plasticity is increased by adding water and clay to sand.
3. Adhesiveness:- It is the property of sand due to which it adheres to the sides of the moulding box. Good sand must have sufficient
adhesiveness so that heavy sand masses can be successfully held in moulding box without any danger of its falling out when the box is
removed.
5. Refractoriness:- It is that property of the sand which enables it to resist high temperature of the molten metal without breaking or fusing.
The higher pouring temperature, such as those for ferrous alloys, requires great refractoriness of the sand. The degree of refractoriness
depends upon the quartz contents, and the shape and grain size of the particles.
6. Flowability:- It is the property of sand due to which it behaves like a fluid so that, when rammed, it flows to all portions of a mould and
distributes the ramming pressure equally. Generally, sand particles resist moving around corners. In general, flowability increases with
decrease in green strength and decrease in grain size. It also varies with moisture content.
Types of Patterns:-
1. Single Piece Pattern
Single piece pattern is the cheapest pattern among all other types of pattern. This pattern generally used in simple processes. It is applied in
small scale production. It is often used for the generation of large castings such as stuffing box of steam engine and for creating simple
shapes, flat surfaces like simple rectangular blocks. This pattern is expected to be entirely in the drag. One of the surfaces is expected to be
flat which is used as the parting plane. If no such flat surface exists, the moulding may become complicated with the necessity of a follow
board as explained later.
2. Split Pattern or Two Piece Pattern
A split pattern consists of two or more parts that fit together to form the complete pattern. The parts are known as the cope (upper part)
and the drag (lower part) of the pattern. Split patterns allow for the creation of larger and more complex castings by facilitating easy removal
from the mold and incorporating cores. These dowel pins match with the precisely made holes in the drag half of the pattern and thus align
the two halves properly as seen in Fig. 3.10
3.Gated Pattern
A gated pattern is simply one or more loose patterns having attached gates and runners. Because of their higher cost, these patterns are used for producing
small castings in mass production systems and on molding machines. For small castings, multi cavity moulds are prepared i.e. single moulds carry a number of
cavities. The figure shows that such moulds are created by connecting some patterns and gates and providing a common runner for the molten metal

4.Match Plate Pattern

Pattern are made in two pieces one piece mounted on one side and the other on other side of plate called match plate. rates.It is split pattern in which the cope and drag portions are mounted
on opposite side of a plate, called match plate Plate may carry one or group of patterns mounted on match plates. Along with pattern gates and runners are also attached.It produces accurate
castings at faster
5.Loose Piece Pattern:-
This type of pattern is also used when the contour of the part is such that withdrawing the pattern from the mould is not possible. Hence
during moulding the obstructing part of the contour is held as a loose piece by a wire. After moulding is over, first the main pattern is
removed and then the loose pieces are recovered through the gap generated by the main pattern (Fig. 3.13). Moulding with loose pieces is a
highly skilled job and is generally expensive and therefore, should be avoided where possible.

6.Follow Board Pattern:-

This type of pattern is adopted for those castings where there are some portions which are structurally weak and if not supported properly
are likely to break under the force of ramming. Hence the bottom board is modified as a follow board to closely fit the contour of the weak
pattern and thus support it during the ramming of the drag. During the preparation of the cope, no follow board is necessary because the
sand that is already compacted in the drag will support the fragile pattern. An example is shown in Fig. 3.14.
7.Sweep Pattern
It is used to sweep the complete casting by means of a plane sweep. These are used for generating large shapes which are axi–symmetrical. This greatly
reduces the cost of a three dimensional pattern. This type of pattern is particularly suitable for very large castings such as bells for ornamental purposes
used, which are generally cast in pit moulds. The sweep pattern consists of a wooden board having a shape corresponding to the shape of desired casting.
It is arranged to rotate about a central axis. The sand is rammed and the board is made to rotate to get the desired shape mould. Sweep pattern is used
for manufacturing of circular parts.

8.Skeleton Pattern
A skeleton of the pattern made of strips of wood is used for building the final pattern by packing sand around the skeleton. After packing
the sand, the desired form is obtained with the help of a strickle as shown in Fig. 3.16. The type of skeleton to be made is dependent upon
the geometry of the work piece. This type of pattern is useful generally for very large castings required in small quantities where large
expense on complete wooden pattern is not justified.
Forming Processes:-
Metal forming can be defined as a process in which the desired size and shape are obtained through the deformation of metals plastically under the
action of externally applied forces. Metal forming processes like rolling, forging, drawing etc. are gaining ground lately. It is due to the fact that metal
forming is the waste less process which is highly economical. They give high dimensional accuracy, easy formability for complex shapes and good
surface finish with desired metallurgical properties.
Some of the metal forming processes are as follows:
● Rolling
● Forging
● Extrusion
● Drawing
● Sheet Metal Operations
COLD WORKING:- Plastic deformation of metals below the recrystallization temperature is known as cold working. It is generally performed at room
temperature. In some cases, slightly elevated temperatures may be used to provide increased ductility and reduced strength. Cold working offers a
number of distinct advantages, and for this reason various cold working processes have become extremely important. Significant advances in recent
years have extended the use of cold forming, and the trend appears likely to continue.
In comparison with hot working, the advantages of cold working are
1. No heating is required
2. Better surface finish is obtained
3. Better dimensional control is achieved; therefore no secondary machining is generally needed.
4. Products possess better reproducibility and inter changeablity.
5. Better strength, fatigue, and wear properties of material.
6. Directional properties can be imparted.
7. Contamination problems are almost negligible.
Some disadvantages associated with cold-working processes are:
1. Higher forces are required for deformation.
2. Heavier and more powerful equipment is required.
3. Less ductility is available.
4. Metal surfaces must be clean and scale-free.
5. Strain hardening occurs (may require intermediate annealing).
6. Undesirable residual stresses may be produced
Cold forming processes, in general, are better suited to large-scale production of parts because of the cost of the required equipment and
tooling.
HOT WORKING: Plastic deformation of metal carried out at temperature above the recrystallization temperature, is called hot working.
Under the action of heat and force, when the atoms of metal reach a certain higher energy level, the new crystals start forming. This is
called recrystallization. When this happens, the old grain structure deformed by previously carried out mechanical working no longer exist,
instead new crystals which are strain -free are formed. In hot working, the temperature at which the working is completed is critical since
any extra heat left in the material after working will promote grain growth, leading to poor mechanical properties of material
• ROLLING
Rolling is a deformation process in which the thickness of the work piece is reduced by compressive forces exerted by two opposing rolls.
Rolling is categorized into two types,
Hot rolling and Cold rolling. In hot rolling, the metal is heated to just below its melting point before being fed into the rollers. It is very useful
for brittle materials like Cast iron, the hot rolled steel cools down with finer grains in the crystalline micro-structure, and is stronger and less
brittle, e,g. wrought iron. A structural change which occurs in the direction of rolling and the velocity of material at exit is higher than that at
the entry. After crossing the stress zone, grains starts refining in the case of hot rolling. In cold rolling, grains retain the shape acquired by
them during rolling.
TYPES OF ROLLING MILLS: -A rolling mill consists of one or more roll stands, motor drive, reduction gears, and flywheel and coupling gears
between units. The roll stand is the main part of the mill, where the rolling process is performed. It basically consists of housings in which
bearings are fitted, which are used for mounting the rolls. Depending upon the profile of the rolled product, the body of the roll may be
either flat for rolling sheets (plates or strips) or grooved for making structural members (channel, I-beam, rail).Rolling mills are classified
according to the number and arrangement of rolls in a stand. They are classified as:
(A) Hot rolling of metals (Two-high rolling mill, Three-high rolling mill)
(B) Cold rolling of metals (Four high rolling mill, Cluster rolling mill)
(1) Two-high rolling mill: It is basically of two types i.e., non-reversing and reversing rolling mill. The two high non-reversing rolling stand
arrangements is the most common arrangement. In this the rolls always move in only one direction, while in a two-high reversing rolling.
(2) Three-high rolling mill: It is used for rolling of two continuous passes in a rolling sequence without reversing the drives. After all the metal
has passed through the bottom roll set, the end of the metal is entered into the other set of the rolls for the next pass. For this purpose, a
table-tilting arrangement is required to bring the metal to the level with the rolls. Such type of arrangement is used for making plates or
sections
(3) Four-high rolling mill: It is generally a two-high rolling mill, but with small sized rolls. The other two rolls are the backup rolls for providing
the necessary rigidity to the small rolls. It is used for both hot and cold rolling of wide plates and sheets.
(4) Cluster rolling mill: It uses backup rolls to support the smaller work rolls. In this type of mill, the roll in contact with the work can be as
small as 1/4 in. in diameter. Foil is always rolled on cluster mills since the small thickness requires small-diameter rolls

FORGING
Forging can be defined as a method of shaping heated metal by compression. The forging process evolved from the manual art of simple
blacksmithing. The special tools that a blacksmith use are various kinds of dies, swages and fullers.
Modern forging uses machine driven impact hammers or presses which deform the work piece by controlled pressure. The forging
process is superior to casting as the parts formed by forging have denser microstructures, more defined grain patterns, and less porosity,
making such parts much stronger than a casting. Forgings usually have great strength, as compared with other methods of producing
products.
Forging Operations
Forging is the oldest metal working process. Because it just requires heating and hammering of metals, man found it easy. The following
forging operations are performed.
Drawing down or swaging: The process of increasing length and decreasing cross sectional area of the metal is known as drawing. The
compressive force (hammering or pressing) are applied perpendicular to the length axis of the metal piece.
Upsetting: It is just reverse of drawing. The cross-sectional area of the work piece is increased and length decreases. For it, the compressive
forces are applied along the length axis of the metal piece.
Coining (closed-die forging): Minting of coins, where the slug is shaped in a completely closed cavity, is an example of closed-die forging. To
produce the fine details of a coin, high pressures, and sometimes several operations are needed, while lubricants are not used because they
can prevent reproduction of fine die surface details.
Heading (open-die forging): Heading is an example of open-die forging. It transforms a rod, usually of circular cross-section, into a shape
with a larger cross-section. The heads of bolts, screws, and nails are some examples of heading. The work piece has a tendency to buckle if
the length to- diameter ratio is too high.
Punching: It is the process of making holes by using punch.
Cogging: Also called drawing out, successive steps are carried to reduce the thickness of a bar. Forces needed to reduce the thickness of a
long bar are moderate, if the contact area is small. Fullering and Edging: It is an intermediate process to distribute the material in certain
regions of the workpiece before it undergoes other forging processes that give it the final shape.
Roll Forging: A bar is passed through a pair of rolls with grooves of various shapes. This process reduces the cross-sectional area of the bar
while changing its shape. This process can be the final forming operation. Examples are tapered shafts, tapered leaf springs, table knives,
and numerous tools. Also, it can be a preliminary forming operation, followed by other forging processes. Examples are crankshafts and
other automotive components.
Skew Forging: It is similar to roll forging but used for making ball bearings. A round wire is fed into the roll gap and spherical blanks are
formed continuously by the rotating rolls.
Advantages of Forging
Directional strength: Forging produces predictable and uniform grain size and flow characteristics. These qualities translate
into superior metallurgical and mechanical qualities, and deliver increased directional strength in the final part.
Structural strength: Forging also provides a degree of structural integrity that is unmatched by other metalworking
processes. It eliminates internal voids and gas pockets that can weaken metal parts. Predictable structural integrity reduces
part inspection requirements, simplifies heat treating and machining, and ensures optimum -part performance under field-
load conditions.
Variety of sizes: Open die forged part weights can run from a single pound to over 400,000 pounds.
Variety of shapes: Shape design is just as versatile, ranging from simple bar, shaft and ring configurations to specialized
shapes.
Metallurgical spectrum: Forgings can be produced from literally all ferrous and non- ferrous metals.
Material savings: Forging can measurably reduce material costs since it requires less starting metal to produce many part
shapes.
Machining economies: Forging can also yield machining, lead time and tool life advantages.
Reduced rejection rules: By providing weld-free parts produced with cleaner forging quality material and yielding improved
structural integrity, forging can virtually eliminate rejections.
Production efficiencies: Using the forging process, the same part can be produced from many different sizes of starting
ingots or billets. This flexibility means that forged parts of virtually any grade can be manufactured more quickly and
economically
Limitations of Forging
The forged parts often need to be machined before use.
Tooling for complicated geometry may be expensive and require multiple passes on the same workpiece.
The rapid oxidation of metal surfaces at high temperature results in scaling which wears the dies.
Initial cost of dies and maintenance cost is high.
Applications of Forging
Typical parts made by forging are crankshafts and connecting rods for engines, turbine disks, gears, wheels, bolt heads, hand tools, and many
types of structural components for machinery and transportation equipment.
TYPES OF WELDING PROCESSES
There are two groups of welding processes according to the state of the base material during the welding process:
1. Fusion welding or Non pressure welding (Liquid-state welding)
2. Pressure welding or plastic welding (Solid-state welding)
In the Fusion welding, the material at the joint is heated to a molten state and allowed to solidify. Since no pressure is applied in this
process, it is also known as Non pressure welding. Addition of filler material may be required for fusion welding. This includes Gas welding,
Arc welding, Thermit welding, etc.
In the pressure welding, the pieces of metal to be joined are heated to a plastic state and then forced together by external pressure. In this
welding, two parts are jointed together under pressure or a combination of pressure and heat. If heat is applied, the contact temperature
is below the melting point of the base metal. No filler material is required in pressure welding.
Ex: Resistance welding – Butt welding, Spot welding, Seam welding, Projection welding and percussion welding falls under this category.
CLASSIFICATION OF WELDING:-
GAS WELDING EQUIPMENT:-
Working:-
High voltage is applied between terminals and it induce electrical field in spark gap.
There would be collision between electrons and molecules in dielectric.
It cause further generation of electrons because of ionization of dielectric molecules.
This cyclic process increase concentration of electrons in spark gap and when potential difference is sufficiently high dielectric break down
and large no. of electrons will flow from tool to job and ions from job to tool.
This movement of electrons visually seen as Spark and electrical energy is dissipated as thermal energy of spark.With a very short duration
of spark , temperature of electrodes raised locally to more than their normal boiling point.
The energy is released from the spark in the form of local heat and eventually local temperature found in the order of 10000 to 12000
degree Celsius.
This heat of spark melt and erodes some metals, some of which is vaporized and other fine material particles are carried by the fluid
circulating around the electrode which creates crater
The melted metals cools and solidifies as tiny particles in dielectric .
The metal is carried away due to circulation of dielectric by means of pump and the process continues.
The rate of metal removal depends on the spark gap. If both the electrodes are made of same materials , then the highest erosion is found
on positive electrode or anode.
So logically to get a high metal removal rate and greater tool life the tool is made as cathode and work piece work as anode.
ADVANTAGES :-
1.Metals having any hardness, or brittleness and toughness can be machined.
2. harder material such as steel alloys or Tungsten carbides which are used for molding and
other conventional machining like forging and press tools can be reproduced.
3. Dies can be machined at hardened conditions.
4. Complicated shape can be reproduced.
5.very fine holes can be done accurately.
6. The accuracy is very high, tolerance of 0.005mm can be achieved.
7. Wear resistance surface can be made because work piece produced with EDM have micro craters which can contain lubricants
effectively.
8. The physical contact between the tool and work piece is avoided. No cutting force other than blasting pressure is exerted. So
fragile jobs and cylinders can be machined without causing any damage.
9. Harder metals can be machined very quickly in comparison to conventional machining processes.
DISADVANTAGES / LIMITATIONS :-
1.The power required for machining is much higher compared to conventional machining . (120J/mm sq.)
2.There are chances of surface cracking when material become brittle at room temperature.
3.A thin layer usually ranging from 0.01mm to 0.10mmcontaining 4% carbon may be deposited on the work piece made of steel.
4. The material removal rate is comparatively low. (75mm cube/second)
5.Reproducing sharp corners is difficult in producing .
6.Sometimes the microstructures are distorted and subsequently etching occurs.
APPLICATIONS :-
1.Generally it is hugely used for machining burrs free intricate shapes as well as narrow slots and blind cavities.
2. EDM can be used to make parts with irregular shape with precision for forging press tool, extrusion dies, cutting tool dies , sinking of dies ,
plastic molding , die casting compacting , cold heading , wire drawing etc.
3. 4.EDM Drilling to drill very small holes and EDM milling to machine complex shapes. It is also used in air craft engines and break valves etc.