Importance of symbols

Simple Statements and Compound

statements
• A simple statements has a single relation of
subject and predicate…
Ali is a doctor.
Ali is a man.
Ali is intelligent.
• A compound statement is a combination of
simple statements…
Ali is a man, he is a doctor and he is intelligent.
By using Logical Symbols we can….

• … precise detailed discourse.

• … avoid ambiguity and vagueness.
• … save our time.
 Symbol For Conjunction ( • or ∧ )
A conjunction is a word that "joins". A conjunction
joins two parts of a sentence… for example…
1) Ali is a doctor.
2) Ali lives in Lahore.
3)Ali is a doctor and Ali lives in Lahore.
• First two sentences are conjuncts and the third
one is conjunction.
• … and, but, or, nor, for, yet, so play the role of
indicators…
 Table
p q p•q
T T T
T F F
F T F
F F F
 Symbol For disjunction ( v )
• The disjunction (or alternation) of two
statements is formed in English by inserting
the word “ or ” between them. The two
component statements so combined are
called disjuncts (or alternatives).
• Either / or are replaced with “v”
• Either Parvez will go or Qasim will go. (p v q)
 Table
p q pvq
T T T
T F T
F T T
F F F
 SYMBOL FOR NEGATION (~ or ¬)
• It is used for negating any statement or matter
of fact… for example…
• It is raining outside.
• It is not the case that it is raining outside = ~
( it is raining outside)
p ~p
~p p
 Symbol For Implication
• The statements containing if-then expressions
are called “conditional statements.”
• Sometimes “ implies” is also used to indicate
that the given statement is a conditional
statement.
• The first part ( if…) is the antecedent of the
statement whereas the second part ( then…)
is the consequent of the statement.
Table for → or 

p q pq
T T T
T F F
F T T
F F T
 Symbol For Logical Equivalence
• The statement containing if and only if
expression are called biconditional
statements.
p q p≡ q
T T T

T F F

F T F

F F T
 Making Truth Tables
• Suppose the question is:
A → B
B →A /∴A → A (valid)
A B A → B B → A ∴ A → A

T T T T T

T F F T T

F T T F T

F F T T T
 Table with three components.
A•B
BvC / ∴ C→A (VALID)

A B C A•B BvC C→A

T T T T T T
T T F T T T
T F T F T T
T F F F F T
F T T F T F
F T F F T T
F F T F T F
F F F F F T
A•B
B v C / ∴ C → ¬A (INVALID BY 1ST ROW)

A ¬A B C A•B BvC C → ¬A

T F T T T T F
T F T F T T T

T F F T F T F

T F F F F F T

F T T T F T T

F T T F F T T

F T F T F T T

F T F F F F T
 Dealing with Four Components
• (A • B) • M
MvC / ∴ C→A (VALID)
A B M C (A•B) (A•B) • MvC ∴C → A
M
T T T T T T T T
T T T F T T T T
T T F T T F T T
T T F F T F F T
T F T T F F T T
T F T F F F T T
T F F T F F T T
T F F F F F F T
F T T T F F T F
F T T F F F T T
F T F T F F T F
F T F F F F F T
F F T T F F T F
F F T F F F T T
F F F T F F T F
F F F F F F F T
 Drawing Truth Table
• In the case of A/SINGLE component : p= T1 & F1
• In the case of TWO components: p & q = p:
T2,F2
q :T1, F1
• In the case of THREE components: p, q & r=
p: T4 ,F4 q: T2, F2 r: T1 ,F1
• In the case of FOUR components: p,q,r,s :
p: T8 ,F8 q: T4 ,F4 r: T2, F2 s: T1 ,F1
 Note:

• Premise can be one, two , three or more than

three…
• Truth table will be invalid if and only if it will
be containing counter example, i.e.
Premise Premise Conclusion

T T F

T T T T F

T T T T T T F
 Assigning Truth Values
• If A,B & C are true statements, X,Y,Z are false…
determine the truth value of the following
statement.
• [( A  B)≡ (AX)]•[(Z v A)• (C  Y)]
= [( T  T)≡ (T F)] •[(F v T)• (T  F)]
= [T ≡ F] • [ T• F]
= F• F
= F
 A,B,C= T & X,Y,Z= F
{[(~A  B)v ~C]≡ (A  X)} • ~[(Z v A)• (C  Y)]
{[(~T  T) v ~T]≡ (T  F)} • ~[(F v T)• (T  F)]
{[(F  T ) v F]≡ (T  F)} • ~[(F v T)• (T  F)]
{[ T v F] ≡ F} • ~[ T • F]
{T≡ F} • ~F
F• T
T
 A&B=T, X&Y= F, P&Q=?
{[(A  B)v P]≡ (A  X)} • [(P v A)• (Q  Y)]
{[(T  T)v T]≡ (T  F)} • [(T v T)• (T  F)]
{[ T v T]≡ F} • [ T • F]
{ T ≡ F} • F
F• F
F ( Value is False)
{[(A  B)v P]≡ (A  X)} • [(P v A)• (Q  Y)]
{[(T  T)v F]≡ (T  F)} • [(F v T)• (F  F)]
{[ T v F]≡ F} • [ T • T]
{ T ≡ F} • T
F• T
F
 Translating statements of English
into Symbolic Logic
• Either Pakistan will join the alliance or Japan
will reject the common trade policy.
Ans: P v J
• If Pakistan and India establish a free trade
policy, then China will be raising objections.
Ans: ( P • I)  C
• It is not the case that if Pakistan and India
establish a free trade policy, then China will be
raising objections. Ans: ~[( P • I)  C]
• If Pakistan or India establishes a free trade
policy, then China will be raising objections.
Ans: ( P v I)  C
• If Pakistan or India establishes a free trade
policy, then China will not be raising
objections.
Ans: ( P v I)  ~C