Chapter Three: Research Design

3.1. Definition
3.2. Components of Research Design
3.3. Conceptualization of the different terms
used in investigation
3.3.1. Variables
3.4. Related literature review, literature search
Chapter Three and stages and procedures of literature review
3.4.1. Characteristics of Related Literature
3.4.2. Recording of Reading for Literature
3.4.3. Note taking: Reviewing the literature
3.4.3.1. Paraphrasing
3.4.3.2. Incorporating Direct Quotes
3.4.4. Proper Citation Style
 • Before conducting any research, you must devise a
plan to collect and evaluate data, tackle the
challenges and reach a conclusion.

• A detailed plan will give your research direction,

3.1. Meaning of sharpen your research methods and set your study up
Research Design for success.

• This detailed plan is referred to as research design in

the professional realm.

• Research design helps provide a structure and

direction to the research, yielding favorable results.
 Research design is the:
• Plan of collecting, measuring and analyzing
data in an economic, efficient and relevant
manner.
3.1. Meaning of • Strategy for answering your research
Research Design . . question using empirical data.

• Framework of research methods and

techniques chosen by a researcher to
conduct a study.
 • Conceptual structure within which research is conducted.

• Blueprint of a scientific study.

• Glue that holds the research project together.

3.1. Meaning of • An outline of what the researcher will do.

Research Design . . . • Decisions regarding what, where, when, how much, by

what means concerning an inquiry or a research study
constitute a research design.
 The following elements are critical when making
A research design is the arrangement of
design decisions
conditions for collection and analysis of
• What is the study about (purpose of the study)
data.
• Why is the study being made (reasons for
undertaking the study)

• What type of data is required (data required)

It constitutes the blueprint for the • Where can the required data be found (source of data)
collection, measurement and analysis of • What will be the sampling design
data • What techniques of data collection will be used

• How will the data be analyzed (method of data

analysis)

• In what style will the report be prepared (method of

reporting)
 I. It is a plan that specifies the sources and types of
information relevant to the research problem.

A research design II. It is a strategy specifying which approach will be

is: used for gathering and analyzing the data.

III. It also includes the time and cost budgets since most
studies are done under these two constraints.
 Components of Research Design
Research design includes major elements like.
C. The Time, Place and Sources of
A. Approach: two basic approaches to research, viz.,
quantitative approach and the qualitative Data collection
approach.
• Quantitative approach involves the generation of data D. Tools and methods of data collection
in quantitative form which can be subjected to rigorous
quantitative analysis in a formal and rigid fashion. E. Methods of data analysis: it include
 Qualitative approach to research is concerned with
subjective assessment of attitudes, opinions and the description of the methods of data
behavior,
analysis like either quantitative or
B. The Population, Sample and Sampling Technique: It
also provides the researcher with directions about qualitative techniques.
population, sample and sampling techniques
 Research design is needed because:
 It facilitates the smooth sailing of the various research

Design: Why we need to operations, thereby making research as efficient as possible yielding
maximal information with minimal expenditure of effort, time and
have a research design?
Need for research
money.
 Just as for better, economical and attractive construction of a house,
we need a blueprint (or what is commonly called the map of the
house) well thought out and prepared by an expert architect, similarly
we need a research design or a plan in advance of data collection
and analysis for our research project.
 Research design stands for advance planning of the methods to be
adopted for collecting the relevant data and the techniques to be used
in their analysis, keeping in view the objective of the research and the
availability of staff, time and money.
 Research design, in fact, has a great bearing on the reliability of the
results arrived at and as such constitutes the firm foundation of the
entire structure of the research work.
 The design helps the researcher to organize his
ideas in a form whereby it will be possible for him to
look for faults and insufficiencies.
Research design Such a design can even be given to others for their
is necessary comments and critical evaluation. In the absence of
because it: such a course of action, it will be difficult for the critic
to provide a comprehensive review of the proposed
study.
 The important features of Good Research Design:
The research design which minimizes bias and maximizes the
reliability of the data collected and analyzed is considered a
good design.
The design which gives the:

Features of  smallest experimental error

 maximal information and provides an opportunity for
Good Research considering many different aspects of a problem

Design: Thus, the question of good design is related to the purpose or

objective of the research problem and also with the nature
of the problem to be studied.
A design may be quite suitable in one case, but may be found
wanting in one respect or the other in the context of some
other research problem.
One single design cannot serve the purpose of all types of
research problems.
 The important features of Good Research Design:

A research design, appropriate for a particular research

problem, usually involves the consideration of the
following factors:
Features of
I. The means of obtaining information
Good Research
II. The availability and skills of the researcher and his
Design: staff, if any

III. The objective of the problem to be studied

IV. The nature of the problem to be studied; and

V. The availability of time and money for the research

work.
 If the research study happens to be an exploratory, the
research design most appropriate must be flexible enough
to permit the consideration of many different aspects of a
phenomenon.
But when the purpose of a study is accurate description of a
situation or of an association between variables (descriptive
studies), accuracy becomes a major consideration and a
Features of Good research design.
Research Design: Studies involving the testing of a hypothesis of a causal
relationship between variables require a design which will
permit inferences about causality in addition to the
minimization of bias and maximization of consistency or
reliability.
The availability of time, money, skills of the research staff
and the means of obtaining the information must be given
due attention.
 Factors Affecting Selection of Research Design
1. Nature of Research Problem: Researcher decides 4. Researcher Interest and Motivation:
whether it should be investigated through an
Motivated researcher always analyze
experimental, Non Experimental or Quasi-
experimental approach.
most aspects of research design before

2. Purpose of study: Study may be conducted for the

selecting one or a combination of designs.
purpose of prediction, description, exploration or 5. Researcher’s Ethics and Principles:
correlation of research variable.
Incorporation of ethics and principles
3. Researcher Knowledge and Experience: Selection of in research design is essential. This
research design is largely influenced by researcher
includes moral obligations such as
knowledge and experience, because they avoid using
respect for participants and their rights.
those designs wherein they lack confidence, relevant
knowledge or experience
 Factors Affecting Selection of Research Design

6. Subjects/ Participants: The number and

7. Resources: None of the researches

availability of study subjects may influence can be conduct without resources such

the selection of research design if only few as money, equipments, facilities and

subjects are involved, an in-depth support from colleagues.

qualitative research design may be choose, 8. Time: Time is also a major deciding
but in case of large samples the researcher factor for the selection of research
may opt for quantitative research design design.
 1. Dependent variable:
• If one variable depends upon or a consequence of the
other variable is called a dependent variable.
• Is a variable that is to be predicted or explained.

Important concepts 2. Independent variable:

relevant to research
• is a variable that is expected to influence the dependent
design
variable.

3. Extraneous variable:
• Independent variables that are not related to the purpose
of a study but may affect the dependent variable are
termed as extraneous variable.
 4. Control:

• A good research design has to minimize the influences of

extraneous variable.

• To do so the researcher uses control as a remedy to

Important concepts minimize the effects of extraneous variable.

relevant to research • In experimental research control refers to restrain to
design experimental condition.

5. Confounded relationship:

• When dependent variable is not free from the influence of

extraneous variable, then the relationship between
dependent and independent variables is said to be
confounded or confused by extraneous variable.
 An extraneous variable:

• Is anything that could influence the dependent

variable.

A confounding variable:
Extraneous vs.
confounding variables • is a type of extraneous variable that is associated
with both the independent and dependent
variables.

• influences the dependent variable,

and also correlates with or causally affects the
independent variable.
Extraneous vs.
confounding
variables
 • When a prediction or a hypothesized relationship is to be tested
by scientific methods, it is termed as research hypothesis.

• The research hypothesis is a predictive statement that relates an

independent variable to a dependent variable.
6. Research
hypothesis: • Usually a research hypothesis must contain, at least, one
independent and one dependent variable.

• Predictive statements which are not to be objectively verified or

the relationships that are assumed but not to be tested, are not
termed research hypotheses.
 7. Experimental and non-experimental hypothesis-testing research:
 When the purpose of research is to test a research
hypothesis, it is termed as hypothesis-testing research.
 It can be of the experimental design or of the non-
experimental design.
 Research in which the independent variable is
manipulated is termed ‘experimental hypothesis-
testing research’ and a research in which an
independent variable is not manipulated is called
‘non-experimental hypothesis-testing research’.
 For instance, suppose a researcher wants to study
whether intelligence affects reading ability for a
group of students and for this purpose he randomly
selects 50 students and tests their intelligence and
reading ability by calculating the coefficient of
correlation between the two sets of scores.
 This is an example of non-experimental hypothesis-
testing research because herein the independent
variable, intelligence, is not manipulated.
 But now suppose that our researcher randomly selects
50 students from a group of students who are to take
a course in statistics and then divides them into two
groups by randomly assigning 25 to Group A, the
usual studies programme, and 25 to Group B, the
special studies programme. At the end of the course,
he administers a test to each group in order to judge
the effectiveness of the training programme on the
student’s performance-level.
 This is an example of experimental hypothesis-testing
research because in this case the independent
variable, viz., the type of training programme, is
manipulated.
8. Experimental and control groups: In an
experimental hypothesis-testing research
when a group is exposed to usual conditions,
it is termed a ‘control group’, but when the
group is exposed to some novel or special
condition, it is termed an ‘experimental
group’.
 In the previous illustration, the Group A can
be called a control group and the Group B
an experimental group.
• 9. Treatments:
• A "treatment" refers to the specific
intervention, manipulation, or condition that is
applied to one or more groups or subjects within
the study.
• Treatments are used to investigate the causal
effects of various factors, policies, or
interventions on outcomes of interest. These
interventions could be changes in policies,
incentives, regulations, or other manipulations
relevant to the research question.

10. Experiment: The process of examining the truth of a
statistical hypothesis, relating to some research problem,
is known as an experiment.
 For example, we can conduct an experiment to
examine the usefulness of a certain newly developed
drug.
 Experiments can be of two types viz., absolute
experiment and comparative experiment. If we want to
determine the impact of a fertilizer on the yield of a
crop, it is a case of absolute experiment; but if we want
to determine the impact of one fertilizer as compared to
the impact of some other fertilizer, our experiment then
will be termed as a comparative experiment.
Characteristics of An Experiment
Test one variable at a time
Must be fair and unbiased
Does not allow any outside factor to
affect the final outcome
11. Experimental unit(s): The pre-
determined plots or the blocks, where
different treatments are used, are known as
experimental units. Such experimental units
must be selected (defined) very carefully.
 Experimental units refer to the entities or
subjects (HHS, Firms, goods etc) on which
the treatments or interventions are applied
and from which data is collected in an
experimental study. These units can vary
depending on the specific research question
and the nature of the experiment.
 Merits and Demerits of Experimentation
Merits of Experimentation
The biggest advantage of the experimental
method is it's unique ability to isolate
causal factors, since an experiment is
highly controlled.
This method promises more accuracy in the
study
 Reliable data can be collected
This is more suitable to the problem with
heterogeneous (varied) influencing factors.
Demerits of Experimentation:
The disadvantage is that exactly this control
may distort the validity of the obtained
results, and especially the ecological validity
This is very costly method
This is suitable to Simple problems with
limited scope
This is a time consuming method.
 Illustrations
Situation 01: Situation 02

• Students were given the same jigsaw puzzle • The temperature of water was measured at
to put together and they were timed. different depths of a pond

Independent Variable … Ages of Students Independent Variable --- Depths of the water

Dependent Variable … Time taken to put Dependent Variable --- Temperature

the puzzle together Controlled variable --- Same pond, Same
Controlled variable … Everyone is given thermometer
the same puzzle
 • The taste of a plain tea was tested by using
different levels amounts of sugar.

Independent Variable ---Level of sugar

Situation 03 Dependent Variable---Taste

Controlled Variable---Same Cup, Same sugar

brand, same tea leaves, same temperature level
of hot water
 1. Assume an experiment to evaluate impact of
Heat on students’ performance: Given the
research variables Heat, Performance in Exams,
Broken or Uncomfortable seats, Personal

Class-Work Problem, Noise from the next Class. Identify the

dependent, independent, extraneous variables?

2. Why is research design important in a study?

3. How does the choice of research design impact

the validity and reliability of study findings?
 Answer: This is for Control of Variance.

• Independent variable: Heat

• Dependent Variable: Performance in Exams

Class-Work • Extraneous Variable: Broken or Uncomfortable
seats, Personal Problem or Noise from the next
Class
 Answer: Class-Work
2. Research design serves as the blueprint for
the entire research process. It outlines the
approach, methods, and procedures to be used
in collecting and analyzing data. A well-
designed study ensures that the research
objectives are met effectively and that the
findings are reliable and valid.
3. The choice of research design directly
affects the validity and reliability of study
findings. For example, a well-designed
experimental study with random assignment
is more likely to produce valid and reliable
results compared to a correlational study
where causality cannot be established.
 3.4.1.Definnition and Characteristics of Related
3.4. Related literature Literature
review, literature search
and stages and 3.4.3. Reviewing the literature
procedures of 3.4.3.1. Paraphrasing
literature review
3.4.3.2. Incorporating Direct Quotes

3.4.4. Proper Citation Styles

 • “Review” means an overview summarizing major parts and bringing
them together to build a picture of a topic

• “The literature” means the major writings especially scholarly

writings on the topic (what is written on the topic by others). It is the
Related body of scholarly professional information that is used by
literature
review: professionals and scholars working on that topic area.
introduction • The literature may include:
Journal articles
Books
Published essays
Government reports etc
 • “A literature Review survey scholarly articles, books and other
sources relevant to a topic for a thesis or dissertation. Its purpose is to
demonstrate that the writer has insightfully and critically surveyed

Related relevant literature on his or her topic in order to convince an intended

literature audience that the topic is worth addressing”
review:
introduction • A literature review is a critical and systematic analysis of existing
research literature on a specific topic or research question.

• A researcher needs to review write-ups, readings and studies related to

his present study to determine the similarities and differences of the
findings between the past and present studies.
 • It aims to gain insight into the aspects of the problems that are critical
and controversial.

• It provides a background regarding the aspects which have been

studied and not yet studied.
Related
literature • A literature review discusses current published material on a specific
review: topic.
introduction
• It synthesizes and evaluates material according to research questions,
thesis, and central themes.

• Instead of supporting an argument, it synthesizes and evaluates others'

ideas on the topic.
 A critical Literature review has many functions (importances) such as:
 It helps to develop a conceptual (theoretical) background
 Relevant findings, methodological issues and major conclusions of earlier and most
recent work are put forward
 The logical continuity between earlier and more recent work is clarified and controversial
issues are addressed

Importance  Literature review help the researcher to get familiar with relevant knowledge related to the
problem to be solved
of literature
 This allows the researcher to select an adequate research approach
review:
• Demonstrates research ability and expertise on the chosen topic.
• Provides prevalent theories, evaluations, comparisons, and identifies gaps in the literature.
• Enhances credibility and reliability as an author.
• Learning which methods and instruments have been useful and those that have less
potential.
• Placing researchers in a better position to interpret the significance of their own results.
 Additional functions which are reasons why do researchers make literature
review:
Important variables will be identified
Problem statement can be made with precision
Researcher can conduct original research
The problem of the study is significant and relevant
Importance of
To know other people working in the field
literature
To measure the depth of knowledge of the subject
review:
In general, literature review ensures:
I. the research is positioned relative to existing knowledge and builds on this
knowledge
II. not wasting time and effort in rediscovering what is actually known
III. the introduction of relevant terminology definition of variables and their
measurements
 Data (Literature) Sources :
 Textbooks
 Journals
 Theses
Sources of  Conference proceeding
literature review  Unpublished manuscripts
 Reports
 Newspapers
 The internet
 • Read critically the contents of books and articles and look for the
following things:

The claims and theories put forward.

While Rviewing  The criticismes of these and their basis.

Literature  The methodologies adopted, and the criticisms about them.

The conclusions and findings advanced

Disagreements about the constructs you are investigating

The gaps you notice in the literature

 • Reading or review for research could take place in three stages of the research
project. Theses include the following:

1. At the Beginning of the Research:

During this initial stage, researchers engage in reading and review to establish
a foundational understanding of the topic area.
When to
The focus is on conducting extensive background research to identify existing
Read?
knowledge, theories, and methodologies relevant to the research question.

Researchers explore academic literature, books, journals, conference papers,

and other scholarly sources to gain insights into the current state of the field.

The goal is to identify gaps in the existing literature, refine research questions,
and develop a conceptual framework or theoretical foundation for the study.
2. During Your Research:
 Throughout the research process, ongoing reading and
review are essential for staying informed about
developments in the field and adapting the research
approach as needed.
 Researchers continuously engage with relevant
literature to inform their methodology, data collection
techniques, and analysis strategies.
 This stage involves actively searching for new studies,
emerging trends, and updated information that may
impact the research findings or methodology.
 Researchers may also encounter unexpected findings
or challenges during data collection and analysis,
prompting them to review additional literature to
address these issues.
 The goal is to maintain awareness of the evolving
landscape of the field and ensure that the research
remains current and relevant.
3. After Your Research:
• Once the research is completed, post-research reading and
review are crucial for synthesizing findings, validating
conclusions, and situating the study within the broader
scholarly context.
• Researchers conduct a comprehensive review of their own
findings in relation to existing literature, identifying
areas of agreement, disagreement, or novelty.
• This stage may involve writing a literature review section
for a research paper or thesis, where the researcher
summarizes the key findings of their study and compares
them to previous research.
• Researchers also consider the implications of their
findings for theory, practice, or future research directions,
drawing on insights gained from post-research reading and
review.
• The goal is to ensure that the research contributes
meaningfully to the advancement of knowledge in the
field and provides a solid foundation for future studies.
Literature review vs an academic research paper
• An aceramic research paper focuses on developing a new argument, and contain a literature
review as one of its parts. The literature is used as a foundation to build up and as a support for a
new insight that this research has contributed

• A literature review focuses on summarizing and synthesizing the arguments and ideas of others
without adding new contribution.

• Thus, literature review is a summary of previous research on a topic

• It reviews the scholarly literature relevant to the topic one is studying

• It helps to design the research methodology and help others to interpret the planned research

• It focuses on a specific topic of interest to the researcher and include a critical analysis of the
relationship among different works, and relating this research to the present work
Literature review may be:
A part (subsection) of a large report of a:
• Research proposal
• Research project or research grant
• Research paper
• Thesis (BA, masters or PhD)
• Scholarly journal article

It can be a stand-alone bibliographic essay:

• A review article, that is published in a scholarly journal
• Theoretical report e.g. masters thesis without research to understand and write up
current research on a topic
How to Organize Information (literature review)
• Identify key themes or research questions.

• Group literature according to these themes.

• Synthesize and evaluate literature within each theme.

• Discuss connections, discrepancies, and gaps.

While writing a Literature Review:

• Be selective in choosing literature.

• Critically evaluate sources.

• Provide clear and concise summaries.

• Discuss strengths, weaknesses, and implications of each study.

• Use appropriate citation and referencing.

 Step 1: Search for Relevant Literature

• To find literatures related to your topic make a list of keywords

• Your University Library Catalogue

Google Scholar: is a widely used academic search engine that provides access to a vast

Steps of collection of scholarly literature across various disciplines.

literature JSTORE: provides access to a vast collection of academic journals, books, and primary
review
sources across multiple disciplines, including economics.

• While not specifically focused on economics, JSTOR contains numerous journals

related to economics, economic history, and related fields.

• JSTOR's collection includes older issues of journals, making it valuable for historical
research and longitudinal studies.

• It offers advanced search capabilities and tools for citation management.

EBSCO: It offers databases such as Business Source Premier, which includes a substantial
collection of economics-related journals, magazines, and reports.
• In addition to economics, EBSCO provides access to literature across a wide range of
disciplines, making it a versatile resource for interdisciplinary research.
• It is widely used by researchers, economists, students, and educators for academic research,
literature reviews, and information retrieval.
EconLit (Economics): is a specialized database focusing exclusively on economics literature.
• It covers a wide range of economic topics, including economic theory, econometrics,
finance, international economics, and more.
• It provides comprehensive coverage of the economics literature, making it a valuable
resource for economists and researchers in related fields.
• It offers advanced search features tailored specifically for economic research, including
subject headings, classifications, and specialized filters.
• Enter the keyword in each site and google
 Step 2: Evaluate and select sources
• Reading the abstract gives clue about the literature

• Check the bibliography to find relevant literatures

Steps…
• Keep track of your sources (take notes) with citations or bibliography to
avoid plagiarism

• Review recent literatures

 Step 3: Identify themes, debates and gaps
• Understand the connections and r/ships b/n the sources you have read.

Step 4: Outline your literature review’s structure

Steps… • Various approaches to organize the body of a literature review

• Thematic?

• Chronological?

• Or combination of the two?

 Step 5: Write your Literature Review
• Your literature review should have an:

Steps… I. Introduction

II. Main body

III. Conclusion
 Common errors made in literature reviews
• Review is not logically organized review is not focused on most important facts of the
study

• Review doesn't relate literature to the study

• Too few references or outdated references cited

• Review is not written in author’s own words

• Review doesn't argue point

• Recent reference are omitted

 Characteristics of Related Literature
A good literature review:

• Is critical of what has been done in the field

• Identifies areas of controversy

• Raises questions and

• Identifies areas which need further research

• It should be free from biases

• Accurate references should be given in the review

 Essential part of academic writing
No copying/pasting

Instead: quoting – paraphrasing – summarising

Reviewing the Quoting is repeating the exact words
literature: Paraphrasing is using your own words
Paraphrasing and Summarising is condensing in your own words
Incorporating Direct
Examples: writer be Montgomery in 2013 who states the
Quotes following issue:
Successful cultural quarters very often have quite deliberately set
out to develop a network of communication venues, and in some
cases these have been planted as strategic elements in the wider
development of an area.
Quote (author-date style):
• Montgomery points out that many ‘successful of the “cultural quarters very often have quite
deliberately set out to develop a network of communication venues’ (Montgomery 2003, p.294).”

Paraphrase (author-date style)

• Montgomery (2013) points out that frequently cultural quarters have not developed spontaneously but
have been purposefully designed to encourage creative exchanges. Or like:

• Frequently cultural quarters have not developed spontaneously but have been purposefully designed to
encourage creative exchanges (Montgomery, 2013).

Summary (author-date style)

• Montgomery (2103) highlights the importance of variety for a cultural quarter to succeed, and
recommends that there should be performing and producing activity around the clock.
 Difference between paraphrase and summary
Paraphrasing:
• Paraphrasing involves rephrasing the ideas
or information from a source using your own
words and sentence structures.
• The goal of paraphrasing is to convey the
same meaning as the original text but in a
different way, without changing the intended
message or altering key concepts.
• Paraphrasing allows researchers to integrate
specific details or findings from a source
into their own writing while avoiding direct
quotation.
• It helps to demonstrate understanding of the
source material and allows researchers to
incorporate evidence or support for their
arguments in a more seamless manner.
Summary:
• Summarizing involves condensing the main
points, ideas, or arguments of a source into a
shorter form, capturing the essence of the
original text.
• The purpose of a summary is to provide a
concise overview of the key information
contained in the source, without including
every detail or example.
• Summaries are often used to give readers an
understanding of the overall content of a
source without having to read the entire text.
• Unlike paraphrasing, which focuses on
specific details or sections of a source,
summarizing provides a broader overview of
the source's main ideas or arguments.
Paraphrase:
Paraphrasing – techniques
• Move last idea/item to front

• Use larger chunks of text

• Break up or join sentences

• Exchange words

• e.g. venue – site or location

• Change word category

• e.g. exist (verb) - existence (noun)

 Paraphrasing and incorporating direct quotes are essential skills
in crafting effective research literature reviews.

• These techniques allow researchers to integrate existing knowledge

seamlessly while maintaining academic integrity and credibility.
Paraphrasing and
Incorporating • Paraphrasing: involves restating ideas from a source in
Direct Quotes in
your own words while retaining the original meaning.
research literature
reviews • The main Purpose of paraphrasing:

1. Clarify complex concepts.

2. Integrate multiple sources cohesively.

3. Demonstrate understanding and engagement with the

literature.
 The Advantages of
Paraphrasing
• Keeps your paper in your own style
• Shows you understand the information
Guidelines for Correct and Ethical
Paraphrasing
• Say what the original says but no more.
• Do not use the same words
• Do not distort source’s meaning.
• Paraphrase should be about as long as the
original.
• The sentence structure should NOT mirror
the original.
• Include citation for every paraphrase!
 Proper citation: Plagiarizing and Academic Dishonesty
Plagiarism includes, but is not limited to: How to Avoid Plagiarism:
1. the use of, by paraphrase or direct Cite all sources in-text and on a reference list,
quotation, the published or works cited page, or in a bibliography.
unpublished work of another person Cite all sources of paraphrases, quotations,
without full and clear summaries, statistics, visual images, charts,
acknowledgment; graphs, maps and every time you use an
author’s ideas, or spoken or written words.
2. unacknowledged use of materials Cite every time you use what is NOT common
prepared by another person or knowledge.
agency engaged in selling or Common knowledge is information that is
otherwise providing term papers or widely known within a society or an
other academic materials; intellectual community; therefore, if you
include common knowledge in your paper, you
3. commercialization, sale, or
do not need to cite where you found that
distribution of class notes without the information.
instructors' permission”

How to Avoid Plagiarism
Use quotation marks anytime you use an
author’s unique wording—even if it is only a
few words.
Example: Lawrence Lessig said that the
government showed no real interest in
changing the law and that the Senate
“gave up” on debating the statute
(Vaidhyanathan 23).
Quote accurately.
When you paraphrase, make sure you do not
misrepresent an author’s ideas.
Common Knowledge
Material might be common knowledge if one of
the following is true:
 it should be found in multiple sources
without direct documentation or citation.
 It is information that your audience probably
already knows
 Anyone could find the same information in
general reference sources (e.g. dictionary,
encyclopedia)
 It is a date of a birth, death, war, important
event, etc..
 Referencing
 Referencing is a standardized way of
acknowledging the sources of information
and ideas that you have used in your
assignment and which allows the sources to
be identified
 It is a method used to demonstrate to your
readers that you have conducted a thorough
and appropriate literature search and
carried out appropriate reading
 With all referencing styles there are two parts
referencing: citing and reference list
Why reference:
• Referencing is important to avoid plagiarism to
verify quotations and to enable readers to
follow up what you have written and more
fully understand the cited author’s work
• If you do not acknowledge another writer's work
or ideas, you could be accused of plagiarism
• Accurate referencing shows that your writing is
based on knowledge and informed by appropriate
academic reading.
• You will ensure that anyone reading your work
can trace the sources you have used in the
development of your work, and give you credit
for your research efforts and quality
 Citation and Referencing styles
For references in parentheses, you should include
1. APA Referencing
the ampersand sign (&) when citing two authors
• APA (American Psychological Association) of a certain work. E.g. “(Simmons, & Parker, 2017)
referencing is usually used in such subjects as
For three or more authors, you need to use ‘et al.’
social work, psychology, sociology, anthropology,
and other behavioral and social sciences.
citing only the first author for in-text references.
E.g. “(Simmons et al., 2017) instead of
• It was introduced in the 1920s and has established
“(Simmons, Covey, & Parker, 2017)”.
itself as one of the most widespread formats for
organizing quotations from other authors. For APA-style reference lists, you need to
• For APA-style in-text references (citation), you
provide:
need to provide:
• Author surname.
• Author(s) surname(s) and initials (all authors
without et al.).
• Publication date.
• Publication date in parentheses with a full stop
• Page number (optional).
after the closing bracket.
E.g. “(Miller, 2018)” or “Miller, 2018, 17).
• Publication name
Examples about the APA reference list:
For multiple authors:
a. Book:
Single Author: Smith, J. D. (2020). The Art of 1.Book:
Collaboration: Strategies for Effective Teamwork
(2nd ed.). Publisher. • Smith, J. D., Johnson, A. B., & Williams, C.
Two Authors: Smith, J. D., & Johnson, A. B. (2020). The Art of Collaboration: Strategies for
(2021). Effective Communication in the Workplace.
Effective Teamwork (2nd ed.). Publisher.
Publisher.
b. Journal Article: 2.Journal Article:
Single Author: Garcia, M. L. (2019). The Impact of
• Garcia, M. L., Zhang, Q., Nguyen, T., & Lee, S. H.
Leadership Styles on Employee Motivation. Journal
of Applied Psychology, 105(3), 432-445. (2019). The Impact of Leadership Styles on
https://doi.org/10.1037/apl0000456
Employee Motivation: A Cross-Cultural Study.
Two Authors: Garcia, M. L., & Zhang, Q. (2020).
Workplace Diversity and Team Performance: A Journal of Cross-Cultural Psychology, 50(5), 632-
Meta-Analysis. Journal of Organizational Behavior, 651. https://doi.org/10.1177/0022022118824030
41(4), 512-529. https://doi.org/10.1002/job.2430
2. Harvard Referencing style

• The Harvard referencing system was originally popularized by Harvard University and is widely applied in all
areas of science.
• Similar to APA, it is an author-date system utilizing in-text references as well as reference lists or
bibliographies provided at the end of the document.
For in-text references, you need to provide:
• Author surname.
• Publication date.
• Page number with “p.” (optional).
Examples:
a. Book:
• Single Author:
• In-text citation: (Smith, 2020)
• Reference list entry: Smith, J. D. (2020). The Art of Collaboration: Strategies for Effective Teamwork (2nd ed.).
Publisher.
book:
Two Authors:
• In-text citation: (Smith & Johnson, 2021)
• Reference list entry: Smith, J. D., & Johnson, A. B. (2021). Effective Communication in the Workplace.
Publisher.

b. Journal Article:
Single Author:
• In-text citation: (Garcia, 2019)
• Reference list entry: Garcia, M. L. (2019). The Impact of Leadership Styles on Employee Motivation. Journal
of Applied Psychology, 105(3), 432-445.
Two Authors:
• In-text citation: (Garcia & Zhang, 2020)
• Reference list entry: Garcia, M. L., & Zhang, Q. (2020). Workplace Diversity and Team Performance: A Meta-
Analysis. Journal of Organizational Behavior, 41(4), 512-529.
For multiple authors

Book:

• In-text citation: (Smith, Johnson & Williams, 2020)

• Reference list entry: Smith, J. D., Johnson, A. B., & Williams, C. (2020). The Art of Collaboration: Strategies
for Effective Teamwork (2nd ed.). Publisher.

Journal Article:

• In-text citation: (Garcia, Zhang, Nguyen & Lee, 2019)

• Reference list entry: Garcia, M. L., Zhang, Q., Nguyen, T., & Lee, S. H. (2019). The Impact of Leadership
Styles on Employee Motivation: A Cross-Cultural Study. Journal of Cross-Cultural Psychology, 50(5), 632-651.
For Harvard-style reference lists, you need to provide:

• Author surname and initials (for any number of authors).

• Publication date.

• Publication name in Harvard format.

Examples:

• Achieng, M. and Malatji, M. (2022) “Digital transformation of small and medium enterprises in sub-
Saharan Africa: A scoping review”, Journal for Transdisciplinary Research in Southern Africa, 18 (1),
pp. 1-13.
Publication name in Harvard format for electronic sources:
• Marr, B. (2023) “The Top 5 Education Trends in 2023”, [online] Available at:
https://www.forbes.com/sites/bernardmarr/2023/02/17/the-top-5-education-trends-in-2023/?sh=42c39dcd
4d39
[Accessed on 22 January 2024].
 Key Differences Between APA and Harvard Referencing Styles
Harvard:
1. Formatting difference
• Uses ‘and’ with no commas for separating
APA: author names.
• Uses ‘&’ preceded by commas for • No full stops after parentheses in reference lists.
separating author names.
• Provides access dates for electronic sources.
• Full stops after dates in reference lists.
• Italicizes journal name only.
• Includes publication dates for
electronic sources. • Uses ‘p.’ for in-text references and ‘pp.’ for
reference lists.
• Italicizes the journal name and
volume. • Uses et al. for four or more authors.
• Does not use ‘p’ or ‘pp.’ for quoting • Similar in-text author information for different
certain pages in-text or in reference uses of parentheses.
lists.
• Uses et al. for three or more authors.
• In-text author information varies
depending on parentheses.
 Key Differences Between APA and Harvard Referencing Styles
In general:
2. Publication Information
• APA and Harvard referencing styles have
APA: distinct features.
• Explicit publication reference • Formatting differences include the use of italics,
including DOI and ISBN identifiers. commas, full stops, and the ampersand sign.
• Mostly used in behavioral research and • APA emphasizes web article publication dates
social sciences. and DOI/ISBN identifiers.
• Dominant in US universities. • Choose referencing style based on discipline,
Harvard: institution, or personal preference.
• Provides journal and book publisher
name and location information.
• Used in all spheres of modern science.
• Prevalent in UK universities.
 Examples of APA and Harvard In-Text Citation
Example 3: In-Text Citation for Multiple Authors
Example 1: In-Text Citation for a Book
APA Style:
APA Style:
• (Miller et al., 2022)
• (Smith & Johnson, 2019)
Harvard Style: • Miller et al. (2022)
• (Smith and Johnson, 2019) Harvard Style:
Example 2: In-Text Citation for a Journal • (Miller et al., 2022)
Article
• Miller et al. (2022)
APA Style:
• (Brown & Lee, 2020)
• Brown & Lee (2020)
Harvard Style:
• (Brown and Lee, 2020)
• Brown and Lee (2020)
 Examples of APA and Harvard Referencing Styles
Example 1: Book Citation
APA Style:
• Smith, J., & Johnson, A. (2019). The
Art of Writing: A Comprehensive
Guide. Publisher.
Harvard Style:
• Smith, J. and Johnson, A. (2019) The
Art of Writing: A Comprehensive Guide.
Publisher.
Example 2: Journal Article Citation
APA Style:
• Brown, R., & Lee, C. (2020). The Impact of
Technology on Education. Journal of Educational
Technology, 15(2), 112-125.
https://doi.org/10.1234/jet.2020.15.2.112
Harvard Style:
• Brown, R. and Lee, C. (2020) 'The Impact of
Technology on Education', Journal of Educational
Technology, 15(2), pp. 112-125. Available at:
https://doi.org/10.1234/jet.2020.15.2.112
3. the Modern language association of America (MLA) system: common in arts and
humanities is similar to APA in that it uses the parenthetical in-text citations keyed to a list of
works cited at the end of the paper.
The author’s last name appears in the text close to the borrowed material along with a page
number rather than the year.
Literature and language rely more on exactly where in the text the quoted material can be
found either directly quoted or paraphrased rather than the year.
Numbered notes or footnotes are only for extra information that would disrupt the continuity
of the text.
MLA is generally simpler and more economical than other styles.
Interruptions are kept to a minimum, usually citing just the last name of the author and the
relevant page number within the text.
Example: memory loss, including memory for words, is an obvious and early symptom of
Alzheimer’s diseases (pinker , 281)
• The Modern Language Association of
America (MLA) style is commonly used in
the humanities, particularly in English and
literature studies.
• MLA style emphasizes author-page
parenthetical citations in the text, providing
concise referencing information.
In-Text Citation Format:
• In MLA style, in-text citations typically
consist of the author's last name and the
page number(s) of the cited source.
• Place the author's last name and the page
number(s) in parentheses at the end of the
sentence or clause containing the cited
information.
Example:
(Smith 45) or (Jones and Lee 112-113)
Citing Multiple Works by the Same Author:
• If you cite multiple works by the same author, include a
shortened version of the title in the citation to differentiate
between them.
Example:
(Smith, Art of Writing 45) or (Smith, Crafting Poetry 112)
Citing Works with No Page Numbers:
• For sources without page numbers, such as websites or
sources with no pagination, use the author's name alone or a
descriptive phrase.
Example:
(Johnson) or (Garcia, par. 5)
Citing Works with No Named Author:
• If a source has no named author, use a shortened version of
the title or a descriptive phrase.
Example:
(Modern Poetry 25) or ("Impact of Technology" 7)
Basic Structure of MLA referencing: Example of MLA Citation for a Book:
1.Book: • Author: Smith, John. The Art of Writing.
Author's Last Name, First Name. Title of Penguin Books, 2018.
Book. Publisher, Publication Year.
2.Journal Article:
Author's Last Name, First Name. Example of MLA Citation for a Journal Article:
"Title of Article." Title of Journal, vol. • Author: Brown, Sarah. "Exploring Cultural
#, no. #, Publication Year, page range. Identity in Modern Literature." Journal of
Literary Studies, vol. 15, no. 2, 2020, pp. 56-
Key Features of MLA Style:
72.
• Author-page parenthetical citations for in- Generally:
text citations.
• MLA style provides a standardized format for citing
• Italics for book titles and journal titles. sources and formatting academic papers in the
humanities.
• Hanging indentation for Works Cited
entries. • Adhering to MLA guidelines ensures clarity,
consistency, and credibility in scholarly writing.
• Chicago approach

• The Chicago note-bibliography ciation system used by some humanities and social science, signales to the reader by a
superscript number at the ende of the sentence that a source has been used.

• Example:

• According to prinker, memory loss, including memory for words is an obvious and early symptom of Alzheimer’s
diseases1.

• The soucres of the quotationa and information about the author, title and publication details and the relevant page number
are then sited in a correspondingly numbered footnote at the bottom of the page, or endnote at the end of the paper. If the
text is cited again, the subsequent notes may be shortened2.

________________________________

• 1 Steven Pinker,. Words and Rules: The Ingredients of Language (London:: phoenix. 1999, 1999), 281.

• 2 Pinker, Words and Rules, 297

• Although the same information appears in both the notes and the
bibliography it serves tow different functions: the notes supply a quick
check of the sources and the bibilogrpahy illustrates the extenet of the the
research and the relatoionship to earlier studies. Thus, both notes and
bibliography are usullly provided
• There are however,slight difference in punctuation since the notes are
designed to be read as text and the bibilogrpahy constituties a list of
indpenednet antries.
• The author’s name appears in the notes as first name last name, Mickey
Mouse. While the bibilogrpahy antry inverts them, Mouse, M.
• Number all notes consecutively from, 1. substantive notes are inserted as
appropriate within the list of footnotes3
• ___________________________________
• 3 supplementary information that would disrupt the flow of the text….
• The Chicago Manual of Style (CMOS) is a comprehensive guide to writing, editing, and publishing.
• Chicago style is commonly used in history, literature, and the arts, particularly in the humanities and social
sciences.
In-Text Citation Format:
• Chicago style offers two main systems for in-text citations: the author-date system and the notes and
bibliography system.
• Author-Date System: Uses parenthetical citations in the text, including the author's last name and publication
year.
• Notes and Bibliography System: Employs footnotes or endnotes for citations, supplemented by a
bibliography page.
• Author-Date System Example:
• (Smith 2018) or (Jones and Lee 2020, 45)
Notes and Bibliography System Example:
• Superscript numbers are used to indicate citations in the text.¹
• Citing Sources in Notes:
• Footnotes or endnotes are used to provide additional information or commentary on a
specific point.
• Footnotes are placed at the bottom of the page, while endnotes appear at the end of the
document.
• Example: ¹John Smith, The Art of Writing (New York: Penguin Books, 2018), 35.
Creating a Bibliography:
• The bibliography lists all sources cited in the paper, arranged alphabetically by the author's last name.
• Example: Smith, John. The Art of Writing. New York: Penguin Books, 2018.
• Key Features of Chicago Style:
• Flexible citation systems accommodate various disciplines and preferences.
• Utilizes footnotes or endnotes for additional context or citation details.
• Includes a comprehensive bibliography at the end of the document.
• Conclusion:
• The Chicago approach to citation and referencing offers flexibility and thoroughness for academic writing in
the humanities and social sciences.
• Choosing between the author-date system and the notes and bibliography system depends on the
requirements of your field or publication.
Reference list
• Example of reference list
• Example of reference list
• For books that has to be included in reference list
• Example for books
• What should be included in journal articles
• Example for journal articles
Thank you for your attention