Chapter Five: Source and Methods of Data Collection

The task of data collection begins after a research problem has been

defined and research design/ plan chalked out. Data is what we produce

through the measurement process.

5.1. Types of data

A. Primary data: data collected as fresh and for the first time

(original in character).

B. Secondary data: Data which have already been collected by

someone else

Data which have already been passed through the statistical

process.
 Cont’d…
5.2. Primary Data Collection Methods
Collect primary data through either of the
following methods:
a. Observation
b. Interview
c. Questionnaires
d. Schedules
 5.2.1. Observation

The most commonly used method especially in studies

relating to behavioural sciences. We all observe things around
us, but this type of observation is not scientific observation.

Observation becomes scientific tools and methods of data

collection:

When it serves a formulated research purpose

When it is systematically planned and recorded

And it is subjected to checks and controls on validity

and reliability
 Cont’d…
Things to keep in mind while using this
method:

What should be observed?

How the observations should be recorded?

How the accuracy of observation can be

ensured?
 Cont’d…
Direct observation is the most reliable method
for gathering information relate to the life
style, status, conduct, behavior, language,
custom and tradition and the like
phenomenon.
 Cont’d…
The main advantages of this method:
Information obtained under this method relates
to what is currently happening. It is not
complicated by either the past behavior or future
intention or attitude.
It is independent of respondents and is not
demanding the active cooperation of the
respondents.
 Cont’d…
Limitation of observation method

It is an expensive method

The information provided by this method is very limited.

Sometimes unforeseen factors may interfere with the

observation task

Some people or phenomena are rarely accessible to direct

observation

Subjective Interpretation
 Cont’d…
Types of observation

i. Participant Vs Non- Participant Observation

a. Participant Observation: the researcher lives in
the group or in the community as a member of it
and participates in their life. He experiences what
the member of the group experience.
 Cont’d…
Advantages of this approach

The researcher is enable to record the natural behavior

of the group

The researcher can even gather information, which

could not be easily be obtained if he observes in a
disinterested fashion.

The research can verify the verify the truth of the

statement made by informant in the context of the
study.
 Cont’d…
Limitation of this approach

The observe may also loss the objectivity to

she/he extent participates emotionally

The problem of observation control is not

solved

It may narrow down the researcher’s range of

experience
 Cont’d…
b. Non Participant observation
The researcher does not participate in the
group life but observe as an external spectator.
Under such approach the presence of the
researcher is unknown to the people.
 Cont’d…
Advantage of this approach
Check and control is possible
Since the observer is not a part of a group he is
less subjective
Wider range of experience can be obtained
 Cont’d…
Limitation of this approach
Internal information cannot be obtained
If the presence of the observer is known, it is
very hard to observe the natural behavior of
the observed object.
 Cont’d…
The choice between participant and non-participant

observation depends up on factors like,

Purpose of the study (Type of the study)

The cost of the research or availability of fund to carry out

the research

Availability of the group or community (whether it is

possible to be apart of a community or that group)

Convenience to the observer

 Cont’d…
ii. Structured vs unstructured Observation

a. Structure Observation: it is structured and

preplanned observation technique. This
observation is characterized by a careful definition
of units, the style of recording the observation
information; standardize conditions of observation
and the selection of pertinent observation. Such
observation is appropriate in descriptive research.
 Cont’d…
The approach followed in the observation process is specified in detail.
It includes:

The behavior to be observed

The unit of observation

Subject of observation (women, adult etc)

Conditions of observation (time of observation, place of observation,

approaches of observation, etc)

Style of recording the observed information and the like are

predetermined.

In general, such observation has standardize format and is pre-planned.

 Cont’d…
b. Unstructured Observation:

The observation takes place without the characteristics

mentioned above; i.e. without standardize format and plan.

There is no specification of subject of observation,

behavior to be observed and no standard format for

recording the observed information. Such observation is

very much flexible and commonly used in exploratory

research.
 5.2.2. Interview method

Involves presentation of oral-verbal stimuli

and reply in terms of oral-verbal responses.
This method can be used through:
a. Personal interviews
b. Telephone interviews.
 Cont’d…
a. Personal interviews: interviewer asks
questions in a face-to-face contact
Personal interview can be classified into:
i. Structured Interview and
ii. Unstructured Interview
 Cont’d…
i. Structured Interview:

Involve the use of a set of predetermined questions

Highly standardised techniques of recording.

The interviewer follows a rigid procedure laid down,

asking prescribed questions.

Useful in case of descriptive studies because

It is more economical

provides a safe basis for generalisation

 Cont’d…
ii. Unstructured Interview

Central technique of collecting information (exploratory research)

Characterised by a flexibility of approach to questioning.

Doesn’t follow predetermined questions and standardised

techniques

The interviewer is allowed to

Ask supplementary questions

Omit certain questions

Even change the sequence of questions if the situation demands.

 Cont’d…
Merits of Personal Interview Method:

Possible to obtain deep information

Interviewer can overcome the resistance (by his own

skill)

Greater flexibility (opportunity to restructure

questions).

Can applied to recording verbal answers to various

questions.
 Cont’d…
Personal information can as well be obtained easily under this

method.

Non-response generally remains very low.

The interviewer can usually control which person(s) will answer

the questions.

The interviewer can collect supplementary information about

the respondent’s personal characteristics and environment which

is often of great value in interpreting results.

 Cont’d…
Weaknesses of Personal Interview Method:

It is a very expensive

the possibility of the bias of interviewer as well as that of the

respondent;

Headache of supervision and control of interviewers.

certain types of respondents ( important officials, executives,

people in high income groups) may not be easily approachable

Relatively more-time-consuming, especially when the sample is

large.
 Cont’d…
b. Telephone interviews:
Contacting respondents on telephone itself.
Not widely used method, but plays important
part in industrial surveys, particularly in
developed regions.
 Cont’d…
Merits of telephone interview:

faster than other methods

Higher rate of response

Access can be gained to respondents who otherwise

cannot be contacted for different reasons.

No field staffs are required.

Representative and wider distribution of sample is

possible.
 Cont’d…
Demerits of Telephone Interview

Little time is given to respondents for considered

answers.

Surveys are restricted to respondents who have telephone

facilities.

Extensive geographical coverage may get restricted by

cost considerations.

Questions have to be short and to the point; probes are

difficult to handle
 Cont’d…
Guidelines include: the interviewer

Should plan in advance and fully know the problem

under consideration

Must choose a suitable time and place so that the

interviewee may be at ease.

Approaches friendly and informal (friendly greetings in

accordance with the cultural pattern of the interviewee

exchanged and the purpose of the interview explained).

 Cont’d…

Interviewer must know that ability to listen

with understanding, respect and curiosity is the

gateway to communication

The interviewer must control the course of the

interview in accordance with the objective of

the study.
 5.2.3. Questionnaires method

Questionnaires give through person or mailed

to respondents who are expected to read and
understand the questions and write down the
reply (by their own) in the questionnaire itself.
Most extensively employed in various
economic and business surveys.
 Cont’d…
Types of questionnaires:
i. Mail questionnaires (self-administrated
questionnaires)
ii. Schedules questionnaires
iii. Questionnaires through internet (through
electronic media)
 Cont’d…
Merits of questionnaire Method:

Low cost (even when the universe is large &

widely spread geographically).

Free from the bias of the interviewer (answers

in respondents’ own words).

Respondents have adequate time to give well

thought out answers.
 Cont’d…
Respondents (who are not easily approachable)

can also be reached.

Large samples can be made use of and thus the

results can be made more dependable and

reliable.
 Cont’d…
Demerits of questionnaire method:

Applicable only when respondents are educated and

cooperating.

Difficulty of amending the approach once

questionnaires have been despatched.

Possibility of ambiguous replies or omission of

replies to certain questions.
 Cont’d…
Forms questionnaires: Two general form of a
questionnaire are:
a. Structured questionnaires
b. Unstructured Questionnaires
 Cont’d…
A. Structured questionnaires

Questionnaires in which there are definite, concrete

and pre-determined questions.

The form of the question may be either closed ended

such as: Dichotoms (of type ‘yes’ or ‘no’) or, multiple

choice, pre-coded, filter.

open ended (inviting free response)

scaled responses
 Cont’d…

Thus a highly structured questionnaire is one

in which all questions and answers are
specified and comments in the respondent’s
own words are held to the minimum.
 Cont’d…
Merits of Structured Questionnaire
Are simple to administer and relatively
inexpensive to analyse
The provision of alternative replies helps to
understand the meaning of the question
clearly.
 Cont’d…
Characteristics of good questioner:

Be comparatively short and simple.

Proceed in logical sequence from easy difficult.

Avoid technical terms and vague expressions

capable of different interpretations.

Be dichotomous (yes or no type), multiple choice or

open-ended.
 Cont’d…
Things to know while constructing an appropriate and

effective questionnaire:

The researcher must be clear about the various aspects of his

research problem

Appropriate form of questions depends on the nature of

information sought, the sampled respondents and the kind of

analysis intended.

The researcher must decide whether to use closed or open-

 Cont’d…
Rough draft of the questionnaire be prepared and
giving attention to the appropriate sequence

Researcher must invariably re-examine and may

revise the draft for a better one. Technical defects
must be minutely removed.

Pilot study should be undertaken for pre-testing the

questionnaire. Then the questionnaire may be
edited in the light of the results of the pilot study.
 Cont’d…
Questionnaire must contain simple but straight
forward directions for the respondents so that
they may not feel any difficulty in answering
the questions.
 5.3. Collection of secondary data

Secondary data means data that are already

available i.e., they refer to the data which have
already been collected and analysed by
someone else.
 Cont’d…
Examples of secondary data
Personal documents such as diaries, letters,
photographs, and so on
Public documents such as books, manuscripts,
records, census reports of survey by private and
public institution, and various information
published in newspapers and magazines.
 Cont’d…
Secondary data may either be
i. published data or
ii. unpublished data.
 Cont’d…
i. Published data are available in:

Published data are available in

various publications of the central, state, local

governments like CSA, Regional or zonal office report.

various publications of foreign governments or

International organization like IMF, WB,FAO, etc

technical and trade journals;

books, magazines and newspapers;

 Cont’d…
reports and publications of various associations
connected with business and industry, banks,
stock exchanges, etc.;

reports prepared by research scholars, universities,

economists, etc. in different fields; and

Public records and statistics, historical documents,

and other sources of published information.
 Cont’d…
ii. Unpublished data
sources of unpublished data may be found in:

Diaries, letters, unpublished biographies and

autobiographies and

Also may be available with scholars and

research workers, trade associations, labour
bureaus and other public/ private individuals
and organisations.
 Cont’d…
When dealing with secondary data you should
ask:
Is the owner of the data making them
available to you?
Is it free of charge? If not, how will you pay?
Are the data in a format that you can work
with?
 Cont’d…
Note: Before using data, we must see that possess
the following characteristics:
Reliability of the data
Suitability of the data
Adequacy of the data