Evolution and

Gene
Frequencies
Chapter 5
 Populations
•A group of the
same species living
in an area.
•Species have a
shared gene pool
 The Gene Pool
•Gene pool – sum of
all the alleles for all
traits in sexually
producing population.
 Sources of Variation
1.Independent assortment of
chromosomes
2.Crossing over
3.The chance fertilization of an egg by a
sperm cell.
4.Rearrangements in the number and
structure of chromosomes
 Modern Synthesis Theory
• Combines Darwinian
selection and Mendelian
inheritance
• Population genetics -
study of genetic variation
within a population
• Emphasis on quantitative
characters (height, size …)
 The Hardy-Weinberg
Theorem
• Used to describe a non-
evolving population.
• Deviation from Hardy-
Weinberg equilibrium usually
results in evolution
5 Assumptions of the H-W Theorem
1.Large population size
2.No migration
3.No net mutations
4.Random mating
The Hardy-Weinberg Principle
Determining the Allele Frequency using Hardy-
Weinberg:

1.0 = p + q
Where:
p = frequency of A allele
q = frequency of a allele
 The Hardy-Weinberg Principle
The gene pool of a NON-EVOLVING population
remains CONSTANT over multiple generations (allele
frequency doesn’t change)
The Hardy-Weinberg Equation:
1.0 = p2 + 2pq + q2
Where:
p2 = frequency of AA genotype
2pq = frequency of Aa
2
 Sample Problem
• In a population of 1,000
penguins, 12 have blue feet. Find
the frequency of blue allele, the
yellow allele and the frequencies
of the three possible genotypes
 Solving Hardy-Weinberg Problem
1. Assign the Alleles.
2. Calculate “q” by taking the square root of the
number of homozygous individual.
3. Calculate “p” (1-q).
4. Use p and q to calculate the other genotype
frequencies.
• Homozygous Dominant = p2
• Heterozygous individual = 2pq
 Solving Hardy-Weinberg Problem
1. Assign the Alleles.
2. Calculate “q” by taking the square root of the
number of homozygous individual.
3. Calculate “p” (1-q).
4. Use p and q to calculate the other genotype
frequencies.
• Homozygous Dominant = p2
• Heterozygous individual = 2pq
 Solving Hardy-Weinberg Problem
1. Assign the Alleles.
2. Calculate “q” by taking the square root of the
number of homozygous individual. 0.11
0.89
3. Calculate “p” (1-q).
4. Use p and q to calculate the other genotype
frequencies. 0.79
• Homozygous Dominant0.20 = p2
• Heterozygous individual0.01
= 2pq
 Sample Problem
• In a population of 1,000
penguins, 12 have blue feet. Find
the frequency of blue allele, the
yellow allele and the frequencies
of the three possible genotypes
 Population size, Genetic Drift, and Neutral
Evolution
• Genetic Drift
- the change in the gene pool of a small population due
to chance
• Because gene frequencies are changing
independently of natural selection, genetic
drift is often called neutral evolution.
• Analogous to flipping a coin.
 Factors that Cause Genetic Drift
• Bottleneck Effect

• Founder Effect
 Factors that Cause Genetic Drift
• Bottleneck Effect
-a drastic reduction in
population (volcanoes,
earthquakes, landslides …)
-Reduced genetic variation
-Smaller population may
not be able to adapt to new
selection pressures.
 Loss of Genetic Variation
• Cheetahs have little genetic
variation in their gene pool
• This can probably be
attributed to a population
bottleneck they experienced
around 10,000 years ago,
barely avoiding extinction
at the end of the last ice age
 Factors that Cause Genetic Drift
• Founder Effect
-occurs when a new
colony is started by a
few members of the
original population
-Reduced genetic
variation
-May lead to
speciation
 Gene Flow
• Changes in relative allelic frequency from the
migration of individuals.
• If it occurs in both direction, the two population
will be similar.
• A lack of gene flow between two groups can
maintain the unique allelic frequencies within
the groups
 Mutation
• Mutations are changes in structure of
genes and chromosomes.
• Neutral mutation
• Mutation pressure is a measure of a
tendency for gene frequencies to change
through mutation.
 Modes of Selection
• Natural Selection
- success in reproduction based on heritable traits
results in selected alleles being passed to relatively
more offspring (Darwinian inheritance)
- Cause ADAPTATION of Populations
1. Directional selection
2. Disruptive or diversifying selection
3. Stabilizing selection
 Modes of Natural Selection
• Directional Selection
- Favors individuals at one end of the phenotypic range
- Most common during times of environmental change or when
moving to new habitats

• Disruptive selection
- Favors extreme over intermediate phenotypes
- Occurs when environmental change favors an extreme
phenotype
 Modes of Natural Selection
• Stabilizing Selection
- Favors intermediate over extreme phenotypes
- Reduces variation and maintains the current average
- Example: Human birth weight
 Balanced Polymorphism and Heterozygote
Superiority

• Balanced polymorphism occurs when

different phenotypes are maintained at
relatively stable frequencies in the
population and may resemble a
population in which disruptive selection
operates.
 Balanced Polymorphism and Heterozygote
Superiority
• Favors heterozygotes (Aa)
• Maintains both alleles (A,a) instead of removing less
successful alleles from a population
• Sickle cell anemia
> Homozygotes exhibit severe anemia, have abnormal
blood cell shape, and usually die before reproductive
age.
> Heterozygotes are less susceptible to malaria
 Speciation
 New species are created by a series of evolutionary processes
 requirement: subpopulation are prevented from
interbreeding.
 populations become isolated

 reproductively isolated and geographically isolated

 Isolation
 allopatric

 physical separation
 sympatric

 still live in same area

 Allopatric speciation
 Allopatric = “other country” Harris’s
antelope squirrel
geographic separation inhabits the
 migration canyon’s south
 physical barrier rim (L). Just a
few miles away
on the north rim
(R) lives the
closely related
white–tailed
antelope squirrel
 Parapatric Speciation
• It occurs in small local populations called
demes.
• Less important in evolution.
 Sympatric speciation
 Sympatric = “same country”
 some type of isolation even though
populations live in same area
 what causes this isolation?

 behavioral differences
non-random mating
 physiological differences
chromosomal changes
polyploidy
 mostly in plants: oats, cotton,

potatoes, tobacco, wheat

 TEMPORAL ISOLATION
 two or more species reproduce at different
times
 Orchids and pollination
 REPRODUCTIVE ISOLATION
 when members of two populations cannot
interbreed and produce fertile offspring
 BEHAVIORAL ISOLATION
 occurs when two populations are capable of
interbreeding but have differences in courtship
rituals or other types of behavior
• Phyletic Gradualism is the accumulation of very
small changes in organisms over very long
period of time, eventually resulting in the
formation of new species.
• Punctuated equilibrium involves long periods of
constancy (stasis) interrupted by short period of
evolutionary change.