BEEE-Part-B

K.V.V.Prasad
Assistant Professor
 UNIT I
SEMICONDUCTOR DEVICES
 Introduction - Evolution of electronics – Vacuum tubes to nano electronics
 Characteristics of PN Junction Diode,
 Zener Effect — Zener Diode and its Characteristics.
 Bipolar Junction Transistor Configurations and Characteristics of CB
 CE
 CC
 Elementary Treatment of Small Signal CE Amplifier.
 Evolution of electronics
 The word electronics, actually, this originated from the word electron.
 Electronics is a branch of science dealing with theory and use of devices in which electrons travel through
vacuum gas or a semiconductor medium under the influence of applied electric or magnetic field..3
 Electronics has evolved
• Vacuum tubes
• Transistor
• Integrated circuits
 Vacuum tubes
 In 1883 Thomas Alva Edison discovered the electrons can flow from one metal conductor to another through
vacuum
 n 1897 John fleming, he applied this Edison effect in inventing a two-element electron tube
called vacuum tube diode.
 1906, Lee deforest he utilized the Edison effect to invent another element that is the triode.
 grid will control the flow of electron
 Transistors Era:
 In 1948 three scientists John bardy, Walter Brattain and, William Shockley they developed transistor
 base, emitter, and collector are the three terminals of the transistor .
 These are two Types NPN,PNP.
 Integrated circuits:
 in 1958 Jack Kilby he came out with an idea of making the IC.
 several components on a single chip.
 They are classified as small scale integration, medium scale integration, and large scale integration
ICs.
 1950s single transistor, 1960’s wide scale integration less than hundred components per chip, 1966
medium scale integration components per chip 100 to 1000 , 1969 large scale integration 10,000
components per chip, 1975 very large scale integration VLSI, greater than 10,000 components per chip,
 number of transistors are the density on the integrated circuit doubles every two years so that is called as
the Moore’s law.
 Semiconductor
 It has resistivity between Insulator and conductor.
 At room temperature “e’ moves from VB to CB
 It has -ve temperature coefficient.
 Adding of Impurity will increase the conduction
 Ge, Si,
Intrinsic materials
 EXTRINSIC MATERIALS
 A semiconductor material that has been subjected to the doping process is called an extrinsic material
 1 part in 10 million
 n-type and p-type
 Diffused impurities with five valence electrons are called donor atoms
 The diffused impurities with three valence electrons are called acceptor atoms.
boron, gallium, and indium.
antimony, arsenic, and phosphorus
 Electron versus Hole Flow
 Conventional flow, which is indicated by the direction of hole flow.
 In an n-type material the electron is called the majority carrier and the hole the minority carrier.
 In a p-type material the hole is the majority carrier and the electron is the minority carrier
 When the fifth electron of a donor atom leaves the parent atom, the atom remaining acquires a net positive charge: hence
the positive sign in the donor-ion representation
 PN Diode

 The semiconductor diode is formed by simply bringing these materials together (constructed from the same base—Ge or Si).
 Majority carries on ‘n’ layer moves toward the ‘p’ layer and vice versa.
 This region of uncovered positive and negative ions is called the depletion region due to the depletion of carriers in this
region
 Three possibilities: no bias (VD 0 V), forward bias (VD >0 V), and reverse bias (VD < 0 V).
 In the absence of an applied bias voltage, the net flow of charge in any one direction for a semiconductor diode is zero.
 Reverse-Bias Condition (VD 0 V)
 Number of uncovered positive ions in the depletion region of the n-type material will increase due to the large number of
“free” electrons drawn to the positive potential of the applied voltage
 This widening of the depletion region will establish too great a barrier for the majority carriers to overcome, effectively
reducing the majority carrier flow to zero
 The current that exists under reverse-bias conditions is called the reverse saturation current and is represented by Is.
 The reverse saturation current is seldom more than a few microamperes except for high-power devices.
 its level is typically in the nanoampere range for silicon devices and in the low-microampere range for germanium
 saturation comes from the fact that it reaches its maximum level quickly
and does not change significantly with increase in the reverse-bias potential
 Forward-Bias Condition (VD > 0 V)
 electrons in the n-type material and holes in the p-type material to recombine with the ions near the boundary and reduce
the width of the depletion region
 Resulting minority-carrier flow of electrons from the p-type material to the n-type material (and of holes from the n-type
material to the p-type material) has not changed in magnitude.
 applied bias increases in magnitude the depletion region will continue to decrease in width until a flood of electrons can
pass through the junction.
 The maximum reverse-bias potential that can be applied before entering the Zener region is called the peak inverse
voltage (referred to simply as the PIV rating) or the peak reverse voltage (denoted by PRV rating).
 There is a point where the application of too negative a voltage will result in a sharp change in the characteristics
 The reverse-bias potential that results in this dramatic change in characteristics is called the Zener potential and is given
the symbol VZ.
 The reverse-bias potential that results in this dramatic change in characteristics is called the Zener potential
Applications of Diode
 Zener Diode

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 Zener Diode is one of the most important semiconductor diode that works in reverse bias condition.
 A heavily doped p-n junction diode that works in reverse bias condition is called a Zener Diode.
 They are special semiconductor devices that allow the current to flow in both forward and backward directions.
 High-level impurities are added to a Zener diode
to make it more conductive and thus the Zener
diodes can easily conduct electricity
compared to other p-n junction diodes.

 These impurities reduce the depletion layer of the Zener diode and make it very thin. Thus, this diode also works even if the
voltage applied is very small.
 Forward Biasing

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 When the external DC voltage is applied to the PN–junction in such a way that it cancels the potential barrier, thus permitting
the current flow is called forward biasing.

 To make a pn–junction forward bias, the p–type material is

connected to positive terminal of the battery and
the n–type material to the negative terminal.

 If this external voltage becomes greater than the value of

the potential barrier, approx. 0.7 volts for silicon and
0.3 volts for germanium, the potential barriers opposition will be overcome and current will start to flow.

 This is because the negative voltage pushes or repels electrons towards the junction giving them the energy to cross over and
combine with the holes being pushed in the opposite direction towards the junction by the positive voltage.
 This results in a characteristics curve of zero current flowing up to this voltage point, called the “knee” on the static curves and
then a high current flow through the diode with little increase in the external voltage as shown below.

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 The application of a forward biasing voltage on the
junction diode results in the depletion layer
becoming very thin and narrow which represents
a low impedance path through the junction
thereby allowing high currents to flow.

 The point at which this sudden increase in current

takes place is represented on the static I-V characteristics curve above as the “knee” point.
 Reverse Biasing
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 When a reverse voltage is applied to a Zener voltage, a small reverse saturation current Io flows across the diode.
 This current is due to thermally generated minority carriers.
 As the reverse voltage increases, at a certain value of reverse voltage, the reverse current increases drastically and sharply.
 This is an indication that the breakdown has occurred and We call this voltage, Zener voltage, and Vz denotes it.

ZENER BREAKDOWN MECHANISM

 Zener breakdown happens in heavily doped PN junction diodes.
 In these diodes, if the reverse bias voltages reach closer to Zener Voltage, the electric field gets stronger and is sufficient
enough to pull electrons from the valance band.
 These electrons then gain energy from the electric field and break free from the atom.
 Thus, for these diodes in the Zener breakdown region, a slight increase in the voltage causes a sudden increase in the current.
 Generally Zener Breakdown takes place below 10V.
23
 Comparison between Avalanche and Zener
Breakdown
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Avalanche Breakdown Zener Breakdown

It will occur in the diodes that are lightly doped. It will occur in the diodes that are highly doped.

Avalanche breakdown occurs because of the Zener breakdown occurs only because of the high
collision of free electrons with the atoms. electric field in reverse bias condition.

The avalanche breakdown permanently destroys The Zener breakdown does not destroy the PN
the PN junction of the diode. junction of the diode.
In case of avalanche breakdown, the electric field In the Zener breakdown, the electric field across the
across the junction is relatively weak. junction is strong.

Avalanche breakdown occurs at a reverse voltage Zener breakdown takes place at relatively lower
more than Zener voltage. reverse voltage.
Its depletion layer is wider. Its depletion layer is thin.
It is greater than 10V. It ranges from 5 to 10V.
 Voltage regulator

 When Voltage < zenor voltage diode is in OFF state

 Voltage > zenor voltage Diode is ON state
 Due high filed at junction
Voltage is remains constant for
any amount of current.
 Even though the source have varying voltage over a sufficient range output maintained constant.
 Ei >=VR+VZ
 If Ei is increased then extra drop is occur across the external resistance.
 Load current remains the same , Extra current flows through the diode.
 If I/P voltage is constant but load decreases then load current increase. Extra load current is supplied by diode.
 Transistor
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 A Transistor is a three terminal semiconductor device that regulates current or voltage flow and acts as a switch.
 It has two PN junctions.
 The three terminals of a transistor are Emitter, Base and Collector
 There are two types of transistors 1)PNP – Transistor and 2)NPN - Transistor
Transistor Regions of Operation

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 A DC supply is provided for the operation of a transistor. This DC supply is given to the two
PN junctions of a transistor which influences the actions of majority carriers in these emitter
and collector junctions.
 The junctions are forward biased and reverse biased based on our requirement.
 Operation of PNP Transistor

 Emitter-base junction is forward biased and collector-base junction is

reverse biased.
 The voltage VEE provides a positive potential at the emitter which
repels the holes in the P-type material and these holes cross the emitter-base junction, to reach the
base region.
 There a very low percent(5%) of holes recombine with free electrons of N-region. This provides very low current which
constitutes the base current IB. The remaining(95%) holes cross the collector-base junction, to constitute collector
current IC, which is the hole current.
 The conduction in a PNP transistor takes place through holes.
 The collector current is slightly less than the emitter current.
 Operation of NPN Transistor
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 The operation of an NPN transistor can be explained by having a look at the following figure, in which emitter-base junction is
forward biased and collector-base junction is reverse biased.
 The voltage VEE provides a negative potential at the
emitter which repels the electrons in the N-type material
and these electrons cross the emitter-base junction,
to reach the base region.
 There a very low percent of electrons recombine with free
holes of P-region.
 This provides very low current which constitutes the base current IB. The remaining holes cross the collector-base junction, to
constitute the collector current IC.
 The conduction in a NPN transistor takes place through electrons.
 The collector current is higher than the emitter current.
 Common Base (CB) Configuration of Transistor
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 In CB Configuration, the base terminal of the transistor will be connected common between the output and the input
terminals.
Current Amplification factor (α)

α <1 always. It can be increased by decreasing IB. Practical value (0.9-0.99)

Expression for collector current
 Characteristics of Common Base Connection

 Input Characteristics:

 Input resistance:
 output Characteristics:
Common Emitter

 Emitter is common

 This ratio generally in the range of 20-500.

 This will give the voltage gain as well as current gain.
Characteristics of Common Emitter Connection
Common collector
 INPUT CHARACTERISTICS
 To determine the input characteristics, VCE is kept at a suitable
44 fixed value.
 The base-collector voltage VBC is increased in equal steps and
the corresponding increase in IB is noted.
 This is repeated for different fixed values of VCE.
 The plots of IB versus for different values of VCE shown in Figure
are the input characteristics.
OUTPUT CHARACTERISTICS
 The output characteristics shown in Figure, are the same as
those of the common emitter configuration.
 This characteristics shows the relation between the emitter
current IE and collector-Emitter voltage VCE, for various fixed
values of IB. These characteristics are often called collector
characteristics. A typical family of output characteristics for
a transistor in CC configuration is shown in Figure.
Transistor Biasing & amplifier
DC load line & ‘Q’ Point
Hybrid model
 Classification of Amplifiers

 Based on output: Voltage and power amplifiers.

 Frequency response: Audio(20-20KHz) and radio Amplifiers
 Input: Small signal (input signal is small), Large signal amplifier
 Biasing: Class A,B,C Amplifiers
 Coupling Methods: R-C coupled, Transformer coupled Amplifiers.
 Small Signal model of CE Amplifier
 Small49signal analysis is a technique used to analyze the behavior of electronic circuits when subjected to small changes or
variations around a bias(operating) point.
 In the context of a Common Emitter (CE) amplifier, small signal analysis helps to determine how the amplifier responds to
small input signals.

By using above three equations,

Current Gain
Input Impedance
 Unit-4
 Rectifiers and power supplies: Block diagram description of a dc power supply
 working of a full wave bridge rectifier, capacitor filter (no analysis)
 working of simple Zener voltage regulator.
 Amplifiers: Block diagram of Public Address system, Circuit diagram and working of
common emitter (RC coupled) amplifier with its frequency response.
 Electronic Instrumentation: Block diagram of an electronic instrumentation system.
 Public addressing system

 It is required when large gathering of people is to be addressed.

 Microphone: It converts sound to an equivalent electrical signal. Generally two or three
microphones can be connected plus one auxiliary input for tape is also provided
 Mixer: The output of microphones is fed to the mixer stage. The mixer stage is used to isolate
different channels from each other before they are fed to the amplifier.
 Voltage amplifier and Processing circuits: The voltage amplifier is used to amplify the mixer
output further. The processing circuits block consists of the “master gain control” and the “tone
control circuits”. The tone control circuit consists of the bass and treble control circuits. The
bass control circuit will amplify or cut the low frequency signals and the treble control will.
amplify or cut the high frequency signals
 Driver and Power amplifier: The driver amplifier drives the power amplifier to give more power.
 It is basically a voltage amplifier.
 The power amplifier gives the desired power amplification to its input signal.
 The push pull type of amplifier is generally used because this type eliminates the even harmonics from the output of the
amplifier and avoids the core saturation of the output transformer.
 The power amplifier drives the loud speakers.
 Matching transformers are used between them to match the low speaker impedance to the output impedance of the power
amplifier.
 Block Diagram of electronic instrumentation system

 The physical or electrical quantity which is to be measurand is called as measurand

 pressure, force, level, strain, displacement, temperature, flow, velocity etc. ( measurand).
 transducer element
Transducer and electrical conversion elements:
 Transducer is a device which convert one form of energy into another. (physical to electrical).
 Most of the transducer are primary sensors which sense the measurand then convert it into electrical signal with the help of
conversion element.
 If the measurand is already electrical signal like voltage, current or frequency then it is give to the electrical conversion
element which convert the signal into more suitable form of signals such as 4-20mA, 1-5VDC, 1-10VDC etc.
Signal processing or signal conditioning:
 Signal conditioning is a process to modify the output of transducer so that it can be measurand, controlled and acceptable by
next stages.
 In electronic instrumentation system, filter, modulator, A/D converters, D/A converter, amplifiers, integrators, differentiators
are the important signal conditioning circuits.
 This stage is required to convert the transducer output into an electrical quantity suitable for proper operation of the last
stage or indicator.
Power supply:
 This is a common unit for all instrumentation system. This provides power to all elements working in the instrumentation
setup.
 If the transducer is active transducer (self generating), in that case power supply is not required. For example if that
transducer is thermocouple or piezoelectric crystal.
 For passive transducer power supply is required, for example if the transducer is thermistor or RTD, in that case power
supply is important to the transducer block.
Data transmission element:
 If the sensing element and data presentation element of the instrumentation system are away from each other (physically
separated) in that case data transmission element is very important .
 This element provides a transmission path for the modified signals to travel from transducer element to the rest of
instrumentation elements like recorders, controllers, displays etc.
 In electronic instrumentation system, typically the transmission path is a conducting lines (i.e. electrical cables). In
electronic instrumentation system some time radio link is used as a transmission path them the system is called telemetry
system.
 This element transmits the data to the remote located control room.
Data presentation element:
 This element converts the signal into such from that it can be presented by some visual or audible means.
 Function performed by this stage may be demodulation, amplification, filtering, A/D conversion etc.
 This element modifies the signals in such a way that the signals are accepted by recorders, displays, indicators, printers,
announcing systems etc. as per the requirement of the user or operator or observer.
Output devices:
 For example, if the system is simple instrumentation with display then measured parameter is displayed directly on the
display. If it is required to produce alarm for the over range then indicator or buzzer is used. If the recorder like strip-chart
or X-Y recorder etc. To record the data.
 If the system is control system in that case the measured data not only displayed or recorded but also compared with some
reference value and control action is generated which is used to remove the error.
 Regulated Power Supply or DC Power Supply

 We have several electrical and electronic circuits that require a DC power supply to operate.
But, due to some technical and economical limitations, we cannot use conventional sources of
DC power such as batteries and DC generators.
 In this situation, we use an electronic circuit that can convert AC power into DC power, such a
circuit is known as rectifier.
 However, the DC power output of a rectifier is a fluctuating DC voltage and current which may
damage the electronic circuit. Thus, to overcome the problem of variation in voltage, some
voltage regulating devices are used so that we can obtain a steady DC power supply.
 An electronic circuit that produces a stable DC voltage of fixed value across the load terminals irrespective of
changes in the load is known as regulated power supply. Thus, the primary function of a regulated power supply
is to convert an AC power into a steady DC power. The regulated power supply is sometimes also called as
57
a linear power supply.
 The regulated power supply ensures that the output power at the load terminals should remain constant even if the
input power varies. The regulated power supply receives an AC power as input and generates a constant DC
power as output. A regulated power supply is basically an embedded circuit consisting of various blocks.
The regulated power supply consists of the following four major parts −
 Step-down transformer
 58 circuit
Rectifier
 DC filter circuit
 Voltage regulator

Step-Down Transformer
 The step-down transformer used in the circuit of the regulated power supply changes the input AC voltage to the desired lower
voltage value. Also, this transformer provides an electrical isolation between two circuits. The reduced output AC voltage of
the step-down transformer is used as the input to the rectifier circuit.

Rectifier Circuit
 The rectifier circuit is used to convert the input AC voltage into a DC voltage. It consists of diodes that perform the
rectification process, i.e. conversion of the AC voltage into the DC voltage. However, the output of the rectifier is a pulsating
direct voltage. In practice, a full wave rectifier is used for the rectification due to its technical advantages. This full wave
rectifier can be a center-tapped full-wave rectifier or a bridge rectifier. The full wave rectifier converts both positive and
negative cycles of AC voltage into DC voltage.
 Filter Circuit
 Since 59the output of the rectifier is a pulsating direct voltage which has very high ripple content. Hence, the raw output of the
rectifier is undesirable. In order to get a pure ripple free direct voltage, a DC filter circuit is used. We have different types of
filter circuits such as capacitor filter choke input filter, π-filter, and LC filter. Therefore, the filter circuit converts the pulsating
direct voltage into the constant direct voltage having almost zero ripple content.

Voltage Regulator
 The voltage regulator constitutes the last block of the regulated power supply. It monitors and corrects the fluctuations in the
output voltage of the power supply. The output voltage may change or fluctuate due to any change in the input AC voltage or
the change in the load or change in any physical parameters such as temperature of the circuit. Thus, the voltage regulator
takes care of this problem. The voltage regulator maintains the DC voltage constant at the output terminals.
 A zener diode operated in zener region, a transistor series regulator, fixed and variable IC regulators are commonly used in
different regulated power supplies as the voltage regulator.
 RC coupled amplifier

 Two stage amplifier

 R1,R2,Re are the biasing circuit.
 Ce is emitter bypass capacitor which offers low reactance for input signal.
 RL load impedance.
 Cin is input capacitor it allows the signal current , control the Vbe for proper biasing.
 C is coupling capacitor it allows the only AC signal to second stage. It block the Vcc to
second stage to ensure the
proper bias of second stage.
Frequency of response.
S. No Learning Concept S. No Learning Concept
1 Number Systems 5 Half and Full adder

2 Binary Codes 6 Flip Flops

3 Boolean Algebra 7 Registers

4 Logic Gates 8 Counters

 Number system

 Computers understand only 0,1

 Representing large decimal numbers in decimal is difficult
 To overcome this issue we have hexa, octal BCD number system
 Decimal number system: Numbers formed with 10 digits
 0,1,2,3,4,5,6,7,8,9
Binary system
 Base is 2
 0,1 digits
Octal number system
 Base is 8
 0,1,2,3,4,5,6,7
 Hexa decimal

 Base is 16
 0,1,2,3,4,5,6,7,8,9,A,B,C,D,E,F
 16=24. easily convert to binary
Number system conversion

 Large numbers can easily represented in Octal and

hexa decimal.
 Computers understand only binary.
 Examples on Conversions
 8=23
 Group three digits and convert
Binary addition
Binary subtraction

 Subtraction is also addition

2’s complement
 BCD-Binary Coded Decimal

 It is numeric code in which each digit of decimal number is represented with separate group of bits.
 Ex:58
BCD: Pure Binary:
01001 1000 (111010)2
BCD is very simply to encode and decode but length &
Complexity is more implementation.
Other code similar to BCD
Excess-3 Code

 Ex:12
Gray code or cyclic code
Error detection and correction

 Noise is expected in transmitted signal

 Mostly single bit noise.
 Two types of parity.
Hamming code

 This code used to detect the error and correct the code.
 This code is generated by adding the parity bits to original message.
 Relation between the message and parity bits is given as 2 r≥m+r+1
Where r= No. of Parity bits, m=No. of Message bits,
EX: 1101 message then r=3 to satisfy the above relation
 Parity bit position is given by 20,21,22…… and so on.
Example
Gates

 Basic operations are performed with Digital systems are AND,OR,NOT.

 Other operations are ExOR, Flip-flop, NAND, NOR,
 AND operation:
 The device to perform the and operation is AND gate.
 The output of device is 1 if and only all inputs are 1 is called AND gate.
 Mathematically written as
A.B.C…..N=Y.
 Above equation is called Boolean equation
 The device to perform the or operation is OR gate.
 The output of device is 0 if and only all inputs are 0 is called OR gate.
 Mathematically written as
A+B+C…..N=Y.

 The device to perform the inversion operation is NOT gate.

 The output of device is invesion of input
 Mathematically written as
Universal gates

 With combination of basic gates we can realize any Boolean function

 NAND and NOR gates are called universal gate because either one is enough to realize any Boolean function.
 NOR:
EX-OR & EX NOR
Boolean Algebra

 Rules for implementation of binary variables called Boolean algebra.

Combinational Circuits
 It is a circuit built from various logic gate combinations. The circuit possesses a set of inputs, a memoryless logic network and a
set of outputs.
 The combinational circuit is time-independent. The
output it generates does not depend on any of its
previous inputs.
• The output of a Combinational Circuit depends entirely on the present input.
• It exhibits a faster speed.
• It is comparatively easier to design.
• No feedback is present between the input and output.
• Logic gates form the building blocks of such circuits.
• One can make use of it for both Boolean and arithmetic operations.
• They don’t hold the capacity of storing any state.
• These circuits do not have a clock- thus, they don’t require triggering.
• Users can feasibly use as well as handle them.
• Example – Demultiplexer, Multiplexer, Decoder, Encoder, etc.
Sequential circuits

 sequential circuits are the ones that depend on clock cycles. They depend entirely on the past as well as the present inputs for
generating output.
• It works at a comparatively slower speed.
• The design of these circuits is comparatively much tougher
than the Combinational Circuit.
• A feedback path exists between the output and the input.
• The circuit is time-dependent.
• Flip-flops constitute the building blocks of such a circuit.
• People mainly use them for storing data and information.
• They possess the capability of storing any data state or retaining an earlier state at any given point.
• Because a Sequential circuit depends on a clock, it usually requires triggering.
• They always possess a memory element.
• For Example – Counters, Flip-flops, etc.
 Half Adder
 Half adder is a circuit which adds two bits and gives the sum bit along with carry bit.
 It can not accept a carry in from previous additions. For that purpose, we need a 3-input
adder called full-adder.
Full adder
Flip-flops Basic memory elements used in sequential circuits are flip-flops.
They are storage devices.
They are formed by using logic gates.
Simplest sequential circuit element.
 A modified form of RS flip-flop
D-flip Flop Letter D stands for delay/data
Used for storing information
It has only one data input.
Forbidden state in RS is overcome here.
JK- Flip Flop
T-Flip flop
Counters

 Counter is set of flip flops whose states are changes upon giving the pluses as input.
 Counter counts the number of pulses applied.
 These are two types 1.Synchronous and 2. Asynchronous counters(ripple counter)
 Ripple counter is simple to construct.
 All flip flops are not triggered simultaneously
 D,T Flip flops are used Assy.Counter
 For ‘N’bit counter we required the ‘N’ Flip flop and 2 N states are counted.
Ripple counter
Registers
 Registers are a group of flip-flops
It is group of flip-flops to store the group of bits(word)
 5 Bit Data10110

A flip-flop can store only one bit of data, a 0 or a

1. So it referred to as single bit register.
A shift register has no specified sequence of
states whereas a counter has a specified
sequence of states.
Universal register

 Right , Left shift and parallel output possible

Excitation tables
10’s Complement