Data Analysis and Presentation

What is Data analysis?

• The way information and results are
interpreted and assessed
– Assigning meaning to figures, stories,
observations, etc that have been gathered and
recorded.
– Conceptual frameworks guide data analysis.
– Data analysis possible by hand or computer
(various packages, e.g., EPINFO; EPINUT; SPSS;
etc.)
 Handling data before analysis …
• Clearly identify source (by name or code)
• Keep track of those who have not responded and
follow up
• Indicate the date and file data securely
• Review responses for completeness
• Translate into code (if necessary) or summarise using
key words
• Decide on how to record missing data
• Transfer data to blank copies of the original
monitoring sheet or a spreadsheet programme in
preparation for analysis.
 Types of Data
• Numerical: values for which a numeric magnitude has
meaning
– discreet
• Restricted to certain values that differ in fixed amounts. No intermediate
values are possible, i.e., number of times a woman has given birth or
number of beds available in a hospital
– Continuous
• Not restricted to whole number values, i.e., height, weight
• Non-numerical: values for which magnitude has no meaning.
– Nominal/categorical class
• Values are arbitrary codes with no inherent meaning. The order and
magnitude are unimportant, i.e., sex (1=male, 2=female)
– Ordinal
• Values have inherent meaning based on order but not magnitude, i.e.,
ratings of quality (1=high, 2=low or 2=high, 1=low)
Steps in data analysis and interpretation
1. Review the questions that generated the
information.
• Why was the particular information necessary? What
kind of decisions are to be made based on this
information?
2. Collate the relevant data:
– Baseline info and previous surveys or assessments
undertaken
– Background info e.g. morbidity data, food security info,
health facilities data, ongoing interventions, security
situation.
– Sort information into parts that belong together.
Steps in data analysis and interpretation
continued …
3. Data preparation and cleaning
– Before starting the analysis, the data needs to be
prepared and “cleaned”. Issues to look out for include:-
– Missing data
– Data out of the required range.
– Extreme (biologically unlikely) weight for height data –
outliers
4. Analyze qualitative data
5. Analyze quantitative data
6. Integrate the information
 Analysing Qualitative Data
• Describe the phenomena
– transcribe all interviews/observations
• thorough and comprehensive (‘thick’ description), i.e., information about
the context of an act, the intentions of the actor and the process in which
action is embedded.
describe the sample population,
– who were the key informants, what made them qualify as such? Who took
part in the FGDs? How representative were the participants of the groups
they represented? Under what circumstances were observations carried out?
Who was observed (and who was not)?

• Classification of the data

– look for and code key words and phrases that are similar in meaning
– categorize issues by topics
• Identify and group (categorise) pieces of data together, i.e., separate
similar or related data
 Analysing Qualitative Data continued ...
• Interconnect the concepts
– compare responses from different groups
– determine patterns and trends in the responses from different groups or
individual respondents
– make summary statements of the patterns or trends and responses
– cite key quotations, statements and phrases from respondents to give added
meaning to the text.
– re-check with key informants to verify the responses and the generalization of
the findings.

Display summaries of data in such a way that interpretation becomes easy,

• list the data that belong together – may be followed by further summarization
graphically in some chart (i.e., a matrix – most common form of graphic display of
qualitative data) or a figure (i.e., diagram, flow chart). These help visualize possible
relationships between certain variables.
 Analysing Qualitative Data continued ...
• draw conclusions, and (remember…)
• collection, processing, analysis and reporting of qualitative data
are closely intertwined, and not (as is the case with quantitative
data) distinct successive steps. One searches for evidence,
purposively looks for associations during the fieldwork by
intertwining data collection and analysis, verifies findings by
looking for independent supporting evidence.
• develop strategies for testing or confirming findings
to prove their validity.
• Check for representativeness of data (since informants are
selected systematically & according to previously established
rules) --- are all categories of informants been interviewed? Cross-
check data with evidence from other, independent sources
(informants, informant categories or different research
techniques)
 Analysing quantitative data

• First thing to do to analyse quantitative data is

convert raw data into useful summaries
– Descriptive measures
• Proportions, frequencies and ratios
– Measures of central tendency
• Mean/average, median, mode
– Measures of dispersion
• Range, standard deviation, percentiles.
 Measures of Central Tendency
• A fundamental task in many statistical analyses is to estimate a location
parameter for the distribution; i.e., to find a typical or central value that
best describes the data.

• Interval estimates
– Parameter estimated from a sample data (point estimate or sample estimate)
as opposed to population (true value) parameter.
• Mean – the true mean is the sum of all the members of the given population
divided by the number of members in the population. Impractical to measure every
member  a random sample is drawn  gives the point estimate of the
population mean.
– Interval estimate expand on point estimates by incorporating the uncertainty
of the point estimate.
• For example, different samples from the same population will generate different
values for the sample mean.
• An interval estimate quantifies this uncertainty in the sample estimate by
computing lower and upper values of an interval which will, with a given level of
confidence (i.e., probability) contain the population parameter.
 Measures of central tendency continued…
• Why different measures
– Normal distribution
• Symmetric distribution – single peak, well-behaved tails
(estimates for mean, median & mode similar) - use mean as the
locator estimate.
– Exponential distribution
• Skewed distribution – mean & median not the same – mean pulled
to one side (direction of skewness).
Use all three central measures.
– Cauchy distribution
• Symmetric distribution – single peak with heavy tails
extreme values in the tails distort the mean - use median as the
locator estimate.
 Quantitative techniques continued…
• Hypothesis test
– Also addresses the uncertainty of the sample estimate.
However, instead of providing an interval, a hypothesis test
attempts to refute a specific claim about a population
parameter based on the sample data.
• To reject a hypothesis is to conclude that it is false.
• To accept a hypothesis does not mean that it is true, only that we
not have evidence to believe otherwise.
– Hypothesis tests are usually stated in terms of both a
condition that is doubted (null hypothesis) and a condition
that is believed (alternative hypothesis).
 Quantitative techniques continued…
• Common format for a hypothesis test:
– H0 : a statement of the null hypothesis, e.g., two population
means are equal.
– Ha: a statement of the alternative hypothesis, e.g., two population
means are not equal.

• Test statistic: the test statistic is based on the specific hypothesis

test.
• Significance level: the significance level, α, defines the sensitivity of the
test (i.e., 0.1, 0.05, 0.001) and denotes that we inadvertently reject the
null hypothesis by that percentage (i.e., 10,5 or 1%) of the time when it is
in fact true. The probability of rejecting the null hypothesis when it is in
fact false is called the power of the test and is denoted by 1-ß. Its
compliment, the probability of accepting the null hypothesis when the
alternative hypothesis is, in fact, true is called ß, and can only be computed
for a specific alternative hypothesis.
 Quantitative techniques continued…
• Two-sample t-test for Equal Means
– Used to determine if two population means are equal, i.e., tests if a
new process or treatment is superior to a current process or
treatment.
– Data may either be paired or not paired.
• One-factor ANOVA
– One factor analysis of variance is a special case of ANOVA for one
factor of interest and a generalization of the two-sample t-test.
• Multi-factor ANOVA
– Used to detect significant factors in a multi-factor model. A response
(dependent) variable and one or more factor (independent) variables
as is the case in designed experiments where the experimenter sets
the values for each of the factor variables and then measures the
response variable.
 Data interpretation
• Summaries of data  interpretation of results.
– What tools are used for interpretation?
– Logic
– Knowledge of the programme
– Experience.

• Ascription
• Pre- and post-measures of change.
• After-the-fact statements of change
• Explicit statements of cause/motivation of change
• Evidence ruling out plausible alternative explanation for the
change
• Independence evidence attesting to the program’s likelihood of
effecting change.
 Data interpretation continued…
• Assessment
• Comparison with past project performance
• Comparison with accepted target levels
• Comparison with other programmes or general norms
• Comparison with constituents needs
• With some standards, cost-benefit comparison
 Data interpretation continued…
• Description of the sample
– Describe the study population by producing tables showing the
distribution of important variables e.g. sex, age, sex by age,
morbidity, nutritional status, nutritional status and age, nutritional
status and sex, nutritional status and morbidity, etc.

• Establish the links and association among the various

variables and the nutritional status
– Statistical analysis could be used to determine links or associations
between various quantitative data.
– Further links between qualitative data and the resulting nutritional
status could be established guided by the conceptual framework.
 Data interpretation continued…
• Variables to look into in establishing
associations/links:-
• Socio-economic and political environment
• Food security situation (food availability and access)
• Health and sanitation
• Care practices for mothers and children
• Food consumption
• Food utilization by the body
• Mortality
 Data interpretation continued…
• Identify areas requiring interventions
• Are the interventions that contribute positively to nutritional
status available and accessible to all or sustainable?
• Identify factors contributing negatively to nutritional status.
Have these been sufficiently addressed?
• Compare the current, nutrition situation and the previous
rates. Is it acceptable, poor, serious or critical (WHO
classification)?
• Prepare study findings or results
• Prepare study results highlighting the key findings
• Discuss study findings with study population and
partners
• Provides an opportunity for further comprehensive discussion
and analysis of the results especially with the study population.
 Quality control measures

• Thorough training of staff plus pre-testing of tools

(interpretation of the questionnaires, if necessary)
• Standardization tests- Intra-personal/ interpersonal errors
• Close monitoring of the field work by qualified persons
• Cross-checking of the field questionnaires for anomaly daily
• Daily review of enumerator experiences and problems
• Progress review per plan and by checklist
• Data cleaning: collection, entry,
• Integrity of equipments: maintain accuracy using known
weights