Global Environmental Issues

and Policies
Greenhouse Effect
• Green house are special buildings made of glass and steel. They are
used to row plants that need tropical temperatures and humidity.
• They work by trapping sun’s heat, letting the heat in and prevent it
from escaping.
• Atmosphere act as a greenhouse.
• Green house gases are a natural part of atmosphere. They trap sun’s
warmth and maintain earth’s temperature at a median level.
• The greenhouse effect is important to make earth a living planet
through global warming.
The Green house effect describes how atmospheric
gases prevent heat from being released back into space.
.
Global Warming
• There are number of GHGs that leads to global warming.
• CO2 CH4, CFC, H2O, SF6, N2O
• CO2 is the single most important gas responsible for global warming.
• The effect is felt strongly on poles as polar atmosphere is stable and
vertical mixing does not take place to dissipate the heat.
• Heated atmosphere lead to increased evaporation, hence more water
vapour in atmosphere. (H2O vapour absorbs more heat than CO2 leading
to more warming)
• Ice (white surface) reflects heat, when ice melts, it is replaced by a
highly dark surface that absorbs heat.
The changing climate
Climate change
• There is observational evidence that the world climate has become
more variable.
• Technical data available for almost two centuries ago.
• To go beyond that
• Sea floor sediment; oxygen isotope in fossil shells and glacial ice
• Old soils and tree growth rings
Climate Change-causes
• Natural • Anthropogenic
• Plate tectonics (rearranging Earth’s • Results from addition of CO2 and
continents, moving them closer or other greenhouse gases (GHG)
farther from the equator and the • Burning of fossil fuels
poles)
• Clearing of forests
• Volcanic activity (changing the
reflectivity and composition of the • Addition of human generated
atmosphere) aerosols to the atmosphere
• Variations in Earth’s orbit (the
natural, cyclic change in our
planet’s orbit, axial tilt, and wobble)
• Solar variability (whether the Sun
varies in its radiation output and
whether sunspots affect the output)
Plate Tectonics
• Outer portion of earth is made of
wide rigid plates: evidence of
glacial age over Africa.
• Extremely gradual an occur only
over great span of geological
time scale.
• Not useful for explaining
changes over short time scale.
Volcanic activity
• Changing the reflectivity of the
atmosphere and reducing solar
radiation.
 Orbital Variations-Melankovitch theory
• The natural cyclic change in our earth’s orbit.
• Changing of seasonal and latitudinal distribution of
incoming solar radiation.
• The theory was given by Yugoslavian astronaut
Milutin Melankovitch.
• The theory is based on the following elements.
• Variations in shape (eccentricity) of earth’s orbit
around the sun.(Cycle of 100000 years)
• Changes in obliquity (cycle of 41000 years)
• Precession-wobbling of earth’s axis. (the cycle of about
26000 years)
• The amount of energy reaching the earth remains
same, they change the degree of contrast between
the seasons
Solar variability and climate
• Sunspots: huge magnetic storms that extends from the sun’s surface to
the deep interior.
• Associated with ejection of huge mass of particles that on reaching
earth’s surface reacts with gases to produce auroral displays
Impacts of global warming-climate change
• Melting ice
• Reduced snow cover, shorter river ice seasons and thawing of permafrost.
• Rising sea levels
• Thermal expansion
• Melting of ice in south Pole and retreating of glaciers.
• lead to submergence of islands
• Changes in precipitation pattern
• Frequent droughts in some areas.
• Heavier snow and rainstorm causing flooding.
• Problems in availability of fresh water.
• More powerful storms.
Impacts of global warming-climate change
• Effects on organisms
• Early flowering in plants.
• Change in migration pattern of aquatic species.
• Effects on human health
• Heat and cold waves have high death toll.
• The range of mosquitoes and other disease increases.
• Increase in food and water borne diseases.
• Effects on agriculture
• Rising sea level may flood the fertile deltas.
• Productivity may increase or decrease indifferent areas.
• Certain pests may become more or less problematic.
Structure of atmosphere
Ozone Layer Depletion
• Ozone layer is present at 15-50 km and concentrated between 20-25 km
in atmosphere. Ozone hole was first reported by British scientists in the
year 1985. Ozone layer absorbs harmful UV radiation.
• This has two effects
• Protects the earth from harmful UV radiation.
• Heats up the stratosphere leading to temperature inversion and hence the vertical
mixing and dispersal of pollutants over a large surface.
• Thinning of ozone is caused by Chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs). They are
versatile compounds that are chemically stable, odourless, nontoxic,
noncorrosive, and inexpensive to produce.
• CFCs are used as coolants for air-conditioning and refrigeration
equipment, as cleaning solvents for electronic components, as propellants
for aerosol sprays, and in the production of certain plastic foams.
The Ozone Hole
Ozone Layer Depletion
• With every 1 percent decrease in ozone the amount of UV radiation
entering the earth increases by 2%. This seriously effects the human
health ranging from skin irritation to skin cancer.
• This negatively impacts the human immune system.
• Promotes cataracts.
• It can affect the crop yield.
• The UV radiation entering the Antarctic waters can destroy the
microscopic life forms.
Acid Rain
• It encompasses both wet (rain, snow, fog) and dry(particulate) acid
deposition that occur near and downwind of areas where major
emissions of SO2 and nitrogen oxides(NOx) result from burning of
fossil fuels.
• Large amount of nitrogen and sulphur oxides is emitted into the
atmosphere.
• Sources: power generating plants, industrial processes like ore
smelting and petroleum refining.
• Term was coined by Angus Smith in England in 1852
Chemical reactions
leading to acid
precipitation
En.cictizendium.org
Extent and Potency
• Rain usually has a pH of 5.6 to 5.0.
• Precipitation (rain or snow) with much lower pH is called acid
precipitation.
• Taller chimneys promotes long distance transport.
Effects of acid rain
Effects of acid precipitation
• Acid aerosols effects people’s health-decreases the capacity of lungs to
clear themselves.
• Lowers the pH of lakes and streams.
• Increase in dissolved aluminium that is leached from soil by the acidic
water which is toxic to fish.
• Acid rain not only harms the foliage but also the roots by leaching out
minerals from soil.
• Promotes corrosion of metals and contributes to the destruction of stone
structures.
• Many aspects are yet to be researched.
Chronology of International Environment
Movement
• 1972: Stockholm conference, beginning of realisation of international
cooperation to address environmental concerns.
• 1987: Brundtland commission report “Our Common Future”
• 1989: Efforts by UN General assembly.
• 1992: UNCED/Earth Summit/ Rio Conference, June 3-14 in Rio-De-
Janeiro
UNEP: United Nations Environment
Programme
• After the United Nations Conference on the Human Environment (Stockholm
Conference) in 1972, the General Assembly established the United Nations Environment
Programme (UNEP).
https://sustainabledevelopment.un.org/index.php?page=view&nr=23&type=400&menu=
35

Main objectives of setting up UNEP include

• Proper coordination of UN environmental activities and provide assistance to developing
countries in implementing environmentally sound policies and practices.
• It’s key role has been to develop international environmental conventions, promote
environmental science and information and implementation of the environmental projects
working in coordination with the governments and NGOs.
• UNEP has also been an important funding agency for the environmental related projects.
UNFCCC United Nations Framework
Convention on Climate Change
• It is an entity of the United Nations adopted on 9th May 1992, was made
open for signature during the Rio Conference and came into force on 21st
March, 1994 https://unfccc.int/about-us/about-the-secretariat. The
UNFCCC focusses on stabilising the green house gas emissions and to keep
the rise in the average global temperature close to 1.0 to 1.5◦ degree C.
• It is not a legally binding treaty and meet annually since 1995 in
Conference of Parties (COP) to assess the climate change conditions. In
1997, a legally binding document Kyoto Protocol was formulated to bring
down the GHG emissions by the member countries.
• The negotiations between countries on different aspects of climate change is
based on the principles and objectives laid down by UNFCCC.
Kyoto Protocol
• In 1988, World Meteorological Organization and the United Nations Environment
Programme (UNEP) together created the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate
Change (IPCC)A task force of climate scientists from nearly 100 countries.
• IPCC spurred governments to create United Nation Framework convention on
Climate Change (UNFCCC).
• Kyoto Protocol, adopted on 11th December, 1997 is an international agreement to
reduce GHG emissions. It came to force in 2005.The UNFCCC encourages
industrialized countries to limit their GHG emission while protocol commits them
to do so.
• Kyoto Protocol is legally binding. It covers the emission of six GHG like CO2,
CH4, N2O, SF6, HFCs and perfluorocarbons. Two important mechanisms of Kyoto
treaty
• Emissions trading
• Clean Development mechanism
Montreal Protocol

• 1985 Vienna convention

• Montreal protocol (September, 1987) against the ozone depleting
substances.
• With the developed understanding about ozone depletion and
development of alternative for CFCs, the ozone has not grown thinner
since 1998.
• In 2009, Montreal Protocol became the first international treaty to
attain universal ratification.
Earth Summit, Rio 1992
• The Earth Summit/ United Nations Conference on Environment and Development
(UNCED)was held in Rio de Janeiro from 3-14th June, 1992.
• One of the landmark conferences in the field of environment that brought the
international community together to take the cause of environment protection ahead.
• Attended by 172 countries and 108 of them were represented by the head of states.
• Problems of environmental degradation due to anthropogenic activities, loss of
biodiversity and natural resources were discussed.
• Major outcomes included formulation of
• Rio Declaration (Earth Charter)
• Agenda 21: an action plan of sustainable development
https://sustainabledevelopment.un.org/index.php?page=view&nr=23&type=400&menu=35
• Convention on biodiversity (CBD)
• Convention on Forestry
Earth Summit, Rio 1992
• Further conferences were held to analyse the implementation of
Agenda 21 and formulation of sustainable development goals through
common but differentiated responsibilities.
• World Summit on Sustainable Development (WSSD)/Rio+10 held in
Johannesburg in 2002.
• United Nations Conference on Sustainable Development (UNCSD)/Rio +20
held in Rio de Janeiro from June 20-22, 2012. Major outcomes included the
formulation of concepts of
• Climate Negotiations
• Green economy
• Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs)
Convention on Biodiversity (CBD)
• It was one of the important outcome of the Rio Conference in 1992 and
it came into force on December 29, 1993.
• Ratified by 193 countries in 2013.
• The convention is dedicated not only for the conservation of plants and
animals as well as the sustainable use of biodiversity and fair and
equitable sharing of benefits arising out of use of genetic resources.
• It has two supplementary agreements
• Cartagena Protocol: Biosafety to the Convention on Biological Diversity.
• Nagoya Protocol: Access to Genetic Resources and the Fair and Equitable
Sharing of Benefits Arising from their Utilization to the Convention on
Biological Diversity
Convention on Biodiversity CBD
• Cartagena Protocol: http://bch.cbd.int/protocol which aims to ensure
the safe handling, transport and use of living modified organisms
(LMOs) resulting from modern biotechnology that may have adverse
effects on biological diversity, taking also into account risks to human
health. It was adopted on 29 January 2000 and entered into force on 11
September 2003.
• Nagoya Protocol: The which aims at sharing the benefits arising from
the utilization of genetic resources in a fair and equitable way. It
entered into force on 12 October 2014, 90 days after the date of
deposit of the fiftieth instrument of ratification.
Convention on International Trade in
Endangered Species of Wild Flora and Fauna
• It is an international agreement between governments. Its aim is to ensure
that international trade in specimens of wild animals and plants does not
threaten their survival. https://www.cites.org/eng/disc/what.php
• The convention was adopted 3rd March, 1973 in Washington, DC, USA and
it came into force on 1st July, 1975.
• The convention tries to protect the loss of endangered species. The effort to
regulate the trade comes from the countries, without their coordination it is
not going to work.
• Today, it accords varying degrees of protection to more than 37,000 species
of animals and plants, whether they are traded as live specimens, fur coats
or dried herbs.
Ramsar Convention
• It is an intergovernmental treaty that provides framework for conservation of
wetlands and wise use of their resources.
https://www.ramsar.org/about-the-convention-on-wetlands-0
• The convention was adopted in Ramsar, Iran in 1971 and came into force in
1975.
• There are 168 parties to the convention and have marked 21431 Wetlands of
international importance.
• As of now there are 42 Ramsar sites in India.
• Some of them are: Loktak Lake, Chilika Lake, Bhoj Wetland, Wular Lake etc.
• On 2nd February, every year, World Wetland Day is celebrated when the
convention was adopted.
Chemical Weapons Convention (CWC)
• The Convention on the prohibition of the Development, Production, Stockpiling and use of
Chemical Weapons and on their destruction. The convention is a disarmament treaty
facilitated by Organisation for the Prohibition of Chemical weapon.
https://www.opcw.org/about-us/mission
• It came into force on 29th April, 1997.
• Key features include:
• Destruction (or monitored conversion to other functions) of chemical weapons production facilities.
• Destruction of all chemical weapons (including chemical weapons abandoned outside the state parties
territory).
• Assistance between State Parties and the Organisation for Prohibition of Chemical weapons (OPCW)
in the case of use of chemical weapons
• An OPCW inspection regime for the production of chemicals which might be converted to chemical
weapons.
• International cooperation in the peaceful use of chemistry in relevant areas.
Sustainable Development
• The idea of sustainable development is very popular now and it was
introduced first during the Stockholm conference in 1972.
• The current rate of development cannot continue as it is damaging the
environment.
• Through ever increasing human population and over exploitation of resources.
• Various human activities intended to improve the quality of life are accompanied by
environmental degradation and social disintegration.
• Since the 1980s sustainability has been used more in the sense of human
sustainability on planet Earth.
• Sustainability requires that human activity uses nature's resources at a rate at
which they can be replenished naturally.
Aspects of sustainability
• A sustainable solution to an ecological problem should be able to
address the following three principles of
• Environment protection
• Social development
• Economic development
• Also known as three pillars of sustainability.
Sustainable Development
• The United Nations World Commission on Environment and
development (WCED)established in 1983 also known as Brundtland
Commission after Gro Harlem Brundtland, the head of the
Commission and former Prime Minister of Norway in its 1987
report ”Our Common Future” that defines sustainable development as:
"Development that meets the needs of the present without
compromising the ability of future generations to meet their own
needs.”
Carrying capacity
• Defined as the maximum number of individuals of a species that can
be sustained by an environment without decreasing the capacity of the
environment to sustain the same amount in future.
• It depends on the choices that we make.
• Global environmental changes are increasing, interacting with each
other and other aspects impacting human well being and development
Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs)
• The United Nations conference on Sustainable Development 2012
held in Rio that marked the 20th anniversary of Earth Summit 1992 had
some important outcomes like Sustainable Development Goals.
• The SDGs also known as global goals were adopted by the member
states in 2015.
https://www.undp.org/content/undp/en/home/sustainable-development
-goals.html
• The agenda of the goals is bring about a holistic development of the
society and conservation of environment fulfilling all the three aspects
of sustainable development.
• There are seventeen SDGs and have a target time period till 2030.
Sustainable Development Goals
Earth as a system
• As a system over space
• As a system over time
• We also understand that quality of life is a system, too. It's good to be
physically healthy, but what if you are poor and don't have access to
education? It's good to have a secure income, but what if the air in
your part of the world is unclean? And it's good to have freedom of
religious expression, but what if you can't feed your family?
India’s National Action Plan on Climate
Change and its Major Missions
• The National Action Plan on Climate Change is the India’s response to
combat increasing change in the climate. The plan was formally launched in
2008 by then Prime Minister, Dr. Manmohan Singh.
• The plan consist of working on eight core missions aiming to maintain the
economic growth as well as addressing the issues of climate change.
• National Missions are as follows:
1. National Solar Mission: to develop and to promote the use of solar energy.
This includes the goal of increasing the use of solar thermal technology in
urban areas, industrial and commercial establishments. To increase the
production of photovoltaics to 1000MW/yr and to deploy 1000MW of solar
thermal power generation. To develop an international collaboration.
National Missions
2. National Mission for Enhanced Energy Efficiency: to use the
energy efficiently and increase savings. This includes mandating
energy consumption pattern in large industries. Giving energy
incentives, like reduced taxes on energy efficient appliances and
financing for public private partnerships.
3. National Mission on Sustainable Habitat: to promote energy
efficiency as the core component of urban planning through
extending the energy conservation building code; urban waste
management and recycling including power production from waste;
incentivise the purchase of fuel efficient vehicles and use of public
transportation.
National Missions
4. National Water Mission: the goal is to improve the water efficiency
by 20% through pricing and other measures.
5. National Mission for Sustaining the Himalayan Ecosystem: this
is to conserve biodiversity, forest cover and other ecological values
in Himalayan region especially glaciers.
6. National Mission for Green India: this includes plan of
afforestation of 6 million hectares of degraded forest lands and
expanding the forest cover to 33%.
National Missions
7. National Mission for Sustainable Agriculture: The plan aims to
support climate adaptation in agriculture through the development of
climate resilient crops, expansion of weather insurance mechanisms.
8. National Mission on Strategic Knowledge for Climate Change:
through a new Climate Science Research fund for studying climate
modelling and increased international collaboration.
Environmental Legislation in India
• India has a long history of environmental legislation.
• The Bengal Smoke Nuisance Act, 1905
• The Indian Motor Vehicle Act
• The Indian Forests Act, 1927
• In the post-Independence India, due to lack of implementation they were
proved ineffective.
• India is the first country to amend constitution to protect environment. In
the 42nd amendment adopted in 1976 came to effect in Jan 1977.
• The Directive Principles of State Policy mentioned in Article 47 obliges
central government to protect environment. It made a duty of the state to
apply the principles while making laws.
Constitutional Provisions
• Article 48A was inserted to enjoin the state to make efforts for protection and
improvement of the environment and safeguard forests and wildlife.
• Fundamental duties have provisions to enjoin upon citizens to protect and
respect the environment.
• Article 51-A(g) stipulates that it shall be duty of every citizen to protect and
improve natural environment.
• There is a concurrent list for environment related issues and the there are
certain subjects like water which are on state list.
• In 1980, GoI appointed Tiwari committee on environmental issues. On its
recommendation Department of Environment was established as a nodal
agency for environment protection and conservation
The Wildlife Protection Act, 1972
• Emphasized protection of wildlife within a broad ecological
perspective.
• wildlife includes any animal, bees, butterflies, crustacean, fish and
moths, and aquatic or land vegetation that forms part of any habitat.
The 42nd amendment strengthened the Act.
• It prohibited picking, uprooting, damage or collect willfully any
specified plant under schedule VI from any forest or area specified by
the central Govt.
• Certain areas were declared as National Parks or sanctuaries for
protecting wildlife.
Wildlife Protection Act, 1972
• The wildlife is the property of the govt. and if a person have a
possession of such animal or article and reported has to surrender it.
• Trading in wildlife and article made from them are prohibited by law.
• Shortcoming
• The Act failed to frighten the poachers and miners, but was used against
animal and environment friendly tribal.
Water (Prevention and Control of
Pollution)Act, 1974
• This Act provides a comprehensive coverage of the matters pertaining
to water pollution.
• It defines water pollution as ‘Contamination of water or alteration of
the physical, chemical or biological properties water due to discharge
of any sewage or industrial effluent or any other liquid, gaseous or
solid substance into water whether directly or indirectly as may likely
to render such water harmful to public health or safety, or to domestic,
commercial, industrial, agricultural or other legitimate uses or to the
life and health of plants, animals and other microorganisms.’
Water (Prevention and Control of
Pollution)Act, 1974
• It provides for a Central Board of water Pollution Prevention at the
centre to:
• Coordinate state boards and settle their disputes
• Provide technical assistance and guidance
• Set standards for streams and wells
• Advise central govt. on preventing water pollution
• Create environmental awareness state boards and for the union territories
• Promote research and investigate water pollution problems
• Similar functions are performed by the state boards at the state level
Water Cess Act
• Industries were made to pay a nominal cess to use water which was
refundable up to a limit of 70% if their water discharge quality meet
the standards.
• The Act was amended in 1988 wherein the penalty was increased and
all the industries were required to get environmental clearances.
• Shortcomings
• The act did not cover critical sources of water pollution like ground water
pollution
• Lack of independent revenue base to boards
• The governmental and municipalities remain free from liabilities.
Forest Conservation Act, 1980
• The National forest Policy, 1952 recommended to increase the forest
cover up to 33% of the total land area of the country.
• The Act was implemented with the objective to stop the diversion of
forest area for non-forestry purposes.
• It places liability on public officials in the event of negligence.
• The Act controlled the diversion to an extent.
Forest Conservation Act, 1980
• The 1952 policy was consequently revised in 1988 (The National Forest
Policy) that enumerated certain objectives
• Maintain environmental stability and conserve country’s natural heritage
• Halt soil erosion and check movement of sand-dunes
• Increase the amount of forest cover through social forestry
• Meet the rural people’s need for firewood, fodder and timber
• Make more efficient use of forest produce
• Create mass awareness
• Increase productivity of Forests.
• Shortcomings
• Procedures were complicated
• Control was centralised.
Air(Prevention and Control of Pollution) Act
1981
• The legislation mentions, ”Air Pollution” and defines it as any solid,
liquid or gaseous substance (including noise) present in the atmosphere in
such concentration as may be or tend to be injurious to human beings or
other living creatures or plants or property or environment.
• It specifies penalties and prosecution guidelines. The act makes provisions
for central and State boards for prevention and control of pollution with a
separate section for hazardous chemicals. Functions of boards are
• Advise central govt on issues of air pollution
• Set standards on air quality
• Plan and execute nationwide programs for prevention, control and abatement of air
pollution.
Air(Prevention and Control of Pollution) Act
1981
• Shortcomings
• Minimal penalties
• Non-specified time limits
• No provision of public output
• Non-existent third party rights
• Inadequate administrative support for the implementation etc.
The Environment Protection Act (EPA),1986
• The law was passed by the govt. under section 253 of Constitution as an
aftermath of Bhopal Gas tragedy of 1984.
• This an umbrella legislation to provide for a framework to coordinate the
activities of various central and state authorities established under previous
laws.
• According to EPA, environment includes water, air, land and their
interrelationship with human beings and other living forms.
• The Act notified rules relating to management of hazardous chemicals and
wastes
• Empowers central government to take measures for protecting and
improving the quality of environment.
The Environment Protection Act (EPA),1986
• It Authorizes Central government to issue direction for closure,
prohibition and regulation of any industry.
• Emissions and effluent standards in respect of 61 categories of
industries have been evolved. The Govt has the powers to collect air,
water, soil or other samples as evidence and offences under the Act.
• A special procedure can be adopted for handling hazardous waste.
• Standards for the highly polluting industries should be formulated
within a period of one year from notification.
• A private citizen may file a complaint after giving a notice for 60 days
against a concerned authority.
Scheduled Tribes and other Traditional Forest
Dwellers(Recognition of Forest Rights) Act, 2006
• https://tribal.nic.in/FRA/data/FRARulesBook.pdf
• The law was passed to clearly define the long pending access rights to
forest dwelling scheduled tribes and traditional forest dwellers.
• The Act clearly defines terms like: Community forest resource; critical
wildlife habitat; forest dwelling scheduled tribes; forest land; forest
villages; gram sabha; habitat; minor forest produce; other traditional
forest dweller etc.
• the rights include the right to occupation; community rights; right to
ownership; entitlement to use water bodies, grazing lands; community
tenures of habitat; conversions of leases to titles; to protect forest
resource; right to intellectual property and community knowledge.
Scheduled Tribes and other Traditional Forest
Dwellers(Recognition of Forest Rights) Act, 2006
• The act recognises that only the developmental activities mentioned in
the Act would be allowed in the forests provided the area required is
less than one hectare.
• In case of land acquisition proper compensation as per the State
Government rules should be given.
• The Act also has provisions of penalties for any party violating the
rights of the forest dwellers.
• Shortcomings: the validation of residence proof is often not
documented; the lack of awareness in the forest dwelling
communities.
References
• Singh, J.S., Singh, S.P., and Gupta, S.R., 2006, Ecology, Environment
and Resource Conservation. Anamaya Publications, New Delhi.
• Sharma, P.D., 2003. Ecology and Environment. Rastogi Publications,
Meerut.
• https://www.iisd.org/sd/
Key words
• Protocol
• Treaty
• COP: Conference of parties
• Act
• Law
• Directive Principles of State Policy
• Section
• National Green Tribunal