The total cost for service facilities in chemical plants generally ranges

from 30 to 80 percent of the purchased-equipment cost.

 Process Water and wastewater treatment

An industrial water treatment system treats water so it is more appropriate

for a given use, whether for consumption, manufacturing, or even
disposal.

The most-needed industrial water treatment systems typically include:

• Raw water treatment systems

• Boiler feed water treatment systems
• Cooling tower water treatment systems
• Wastewater treatment systems

The technologies selected and in what order they appear in each water
treatment system will vary depending on the contaminants that need to be
removed.
 Process Water and wastewater treatment

Raw water treatment systems are used for pretreatment and optimization of
source water, toward improving production efficiency and process performance
for a particular application.

Examples include pretreating

cooling tower
boiler feed water,
process and production water,
and water for drinking.

Raw water treatment is focused on protecting equipment from scaling, fouling,

corrosion, and other forms of damage due to contaminants present in the
source water.

Raw water treatment systems typically remove suspended/colloidal solids,

silica/colloidal silica, iron, bacteria, and hardness.
 Process Water and wastewater treatment
Raw water treatment system are:

Intake. Raw water is drawn into a plant through gravity and/or pumps. The
water is usually passed through a mesh screen to prevent large objects
from entering the system.
Clarification. The water then continues for clarification, which is a multistep
process used to remove suspended solids from a solution. Clarification
begins with coagulation, where chemical and/or pH adjustments cause
particles to begin clumping together, followed by flocculation, which involves
physical agitation to encourage formation of larger particles.
Disinfection. If biological contamination and/or water potability is a concern,
the water may then be disinfected to remove any pathogens. Disinfection
may be accomplished through the application of chemical disinfectants (e.g.
chlorine), physical disinfectants (e.g. UV or heat),
Lime softening. In some cases, a lime softening step may be added to
reduce hardness in streams with high mineral or sulfate content. The
process involves the application of lime or lime soda to raise the pH of the
stream, which in turn encourages mineral constituents to precipitate out of
solution.
 Process Water and wastewater treatment

Ion exchange (IX). In some cases, the raw water treatment system may
include an IX unit for hardness removal. In IX softening, a stream is directed
through a strong acid cation resin that is “charged” with sodium; as the water
flows through, the resin captures the hardness-causing calcium or
magnesium ions, while releasing the sodium ions into the stream.
Distribution. Following treatment, the water is pumped or otherwise routed
for use elsewhere in the facility.
Membrane filtration. As microfiltration (MF), ultrafiltration (UF), and
nanofiltration (NF) systems have become more affordable in the last few
decades, they are increasingly being used in place of conventional
technologies such as clarification and lime softening.
 Boiler feed water treatment systems

Ion exchange (IX). In some cases, the raw water treatment system may
include an IX unit for hardness removal. In IX softening, a stream is directed
through a strong acid cation resin that is “charged” with sodium; as the water
flows through, the resin captures the hardness-causing calcium or
magnesium ions, while releasing the sodium ions into the stream.

Distribution. Following treatment, the water is pumped or otherwise routed

for use elsewhere in the facility.

Membrane filtration. As microfiltration (MF), ultrafiltration (UF), and

nanofiltration (NF) systems have become more affordable in the last few
decades, they are increasingly being used in place of conventional
technologies such as clarification and lime softening.
 Boiler feed water treatment systems
An effective boiler feed water treatment system works by both removing harmful
impurities prior to entering the boiler as well as controlling the acidity and
conductivity of the water.
A boiler feed water treatment system steps:
•Makeup water intake. As boilers are used, they lose water to steam consumption,
loss of condensate return, and leaks. This water must be replaced with what is
known as makeup water.
•Filtration. The stream is typically filtered through one or more filtration units for
removal of sediment, turbidity, and organic material.
Softening. Often used for removing hardness from boiler feed water, including
bicarbonates, sulfates, chlorides, and nitrates. This is accomplished by using a
softening resin.
Dealkalization. Alkalinity can cause foaming and carryover in boilers, as well as
corrosion in piping. Using bicarbonate, sulfate, and nitrate ions, reducing pH.
•Reverse osmosis (RO) and nanofiltration (NF). RO and NF are not always used
for boiler feed water treatment, however, they can be useful for removal of bacteria,
salts, organics, silica and hardness.
 Boiler feed water treatment systems

Deaeration or degasification. Following all other treatment steps, the makeup

water and condensate from the boiler system are combined and degasified.
Deaeration/degasification is the removal of dissolved oxygen and carbon dioxide
from the liquid stream, which is important for preventing corrosion.
.

Distribution.The boiler feed water is piped to the boiler, where it is heated to form
steam.

Untreated waters, containing impurities may lead to the following problems in

boilers:
1. Scale and sludge formation
2. Boiler Corrosion
3. Caustic Embrittlement
4. Priming and foaming
 Deaerator
Deaerator is a device that is widely used for the removal of air and other dissolved
gases from the feedwater to steam-generating boilers. .

There are two basic types of deaerators, the tray-type and the spray-type:
• The tray-type (also called the cascade-type)
• The spray-type

Tray-type deaerator Spray-type deaerator

Boiler feed water treatment systems
Cooling tower systems
 Cooling tower water treatment systems

Cooling tower water treatment systems are used to protect cooling tower
components from damage due to contaminants present in feed water, circulation
water, and/or blowdown water.

Contaminants may include chlorides, hardness, iron, biological materials, silica,

sulfates, TDS, Untreated cooling tower feed water can cause scaling, corrosion,
biological growth, and fouling of cooling tower equipment,

Issues
That cause in costly plant downtime, reduced productivity, and excessive
maintenance or equipment replacement costs over time.
 Separators

• • Separators remove suspended water droplets from steam

• • Water in steam causes problems
– Water is barrier to heat transfer
– Erosion of valve seals and fittings and corrosion
– Scaling of pipework and heating surfaces from impurities
– Erratic operation and failure of valves and flow meters
• Three types of separators
-Baffle type
-Cyclonic type
– Coalescence type
 Separators
• Baffle plates change direction of flow – collect water droplets
• Cross-sectional area reduces fluid speed –
water droplets fall out of suspension
• Condensate in bottom drained away through
steam trap

• Fins generate cyclonic flow

• Steam spins around separator body
• Water thrown to wall
• Drainage through steam trap

• Wire mesh pad obstructs water molecules

• Molecules coalesce into droplets
• Large droplets fall to bottom
• Drainage through steam trap
 Steam traps

Steam traps are essential for proper distribution system

performance. During system start-ups, traps allow air and
large quantities of condensate to escape.

During system operation, the traps allow collected

condensate to pass into the condensate return system, while
minimizing the accompanying loss of steam.
 Steam traps
What is a steam trap?
– “Purges” condensate out of the steam system
– Allows steam to reach destination as dry as possible
• Steam traps must handle variations in
– Quantity of condensate
– Condensate temperature
– Pressure (vacuum to > 100 bar)
Selection of steam traps
Selection depends on steam trap’s ability to
• Vent air at start-up
• Remove condensate but not steam
• Maximize plant performance: dry steam

Types of steam trap

Steam traps
Thermostatic Traps

Thermostatic traps use temperature differential to distinguish between

condensate and live steam.
This differential is used to open or close a valve.
Under normal operating conditions, the condensate must cool below the steam
temperature before the valve will open.

Thermostatic Steam Trap with a Bellows Element

Bellows traps include a valve element that expands and contracts in response to
temperature changes. Often a volatile chemical such as alcohol or water is inside the
element. Evaporation provides the necessary force to change the position of the valve.
 Thermostatic Steam Trap with a Bimetallic Element

Bimetallic traps. Bimetallic traps rely on the bending of a composite strip of two dissimilar metals
to open and close a valve.
Air and condensate pass freely through the valve until the temperature of the bimetallic strip
approaches the steam temperature.
After steam or relatively hot condensate heats the bimetallic strip and causes it to close the
valve, the trap remains shut until the temperature of the condensate cools sufficiently to allow the
bimetallic strip to return to its original shape and thereby open the valve.
Bimetallic traps can fail in either the open or closed position.
 Float and Thermostatic Steam Trap

As steam enters the trap and is captured inside the bucket, it causes the bucket to move upward.
This upward movement closes the valve and keeps steam from escaping.
When the condensate collects and cools the steam, the bucket moves downward.
This movement causes the valve to open, thereby allowing the condensate to escape.
Unlike closed float traps, inverted bucket traps have intermittent discharge.
These traps can be depleted of their condensate seal when applied in superheated steam service. If
this occurs, the trap will continuously discharge live steam.
This trap type is not recommended for superheated steam
 Ball float type
• Condensate in trap causes ball float to rise – condensate is released
• Modern traps use thermostatic air vent to allow initial air to pass

• Advantages
– Continuous condensate discharge
– Can handle light or heavy condensate loads
– Can discharge air freely
– Large capacity for its size
– Has steam lock release valve
– Resistance to water hammer
• Disadvantages
– Can be damaged by severe freezing
– Different internals needed for varying pressures
Inverted bucket type

• Advantages
– Can withstand high pressures
– Tolerates waterhammer
– Suited for superheated steam lines
– Safer because failure mode is open
• Disadvantages
– Slow air discharge
– Trap body must always have enough water
– Check valve needed if pressure fluctuations
– Water seal loss by T superheated steam
– Can be damaged by freezing
Thermodynamic Disc Steam Trap
 Steam traps – considerations

• Steam locking
– Can occur in rotating machinery
– Only float trap has ‘steam lock release’ valve
• Diffusers
– Installed to end of the pipe
– Reduces sound and ferocity of flash steam discharge
• Pipe sizing
– Correct pipe size - traps affected by resistance to flow
– Avoid pipe fittings close to trap – back pressure risk
• Air venting
– Important for system warm up and operation
 Air vents
• Air in the system
– During start-up
– Condensing steam draws air in pipes
– In solution in the feedwater
• Signs of air
– Gradual fall of output of steam-heated equipment
– Air bubbles in the condensate
– Corrosion

Automatic air vent on jacketed pan (vessel) Automatic air vent on end of main
 Air vent - location
• Within low lying steam trap opposite high level steam inlet
• Opposite low level steam inlet
• Opposite end of steam inlet
Within low lying steam trap opposite high level steam inlet Opposite low level steam inlet

Opposite end of steam inlet

 Condensate recovery system

• What is condensate
– Distilled water with heat content
– Discharged from steam plant and equipment through steam traps

• Condensate recovery for

– Reuse in boiler feed tank, deaerator or as hot process water
– Heat recovery through heat exchanger

Reasons for condensate recovery

• Financial reasons
• Water charges
• Effluent restrictions
• Maximizing boiler output
 Condensate recovery system

Typical steam and condensate circuit with condensate recovery

 Condensate recovery system

Four types of condensate lines

 Pressure reduction Valve station

A separator is installed upstream of the reducing Valve to remove entrained water

from incoming wet steam, thereby ensuring high quality steam to pass through the
reducing Valve.
 Drip legs

Common to all steam distribution systems is the need for drip legs at various
intervals
These are provided to:
1. Let condensate escape by gravity from the fast-moving steam.
2. Store the condensate until the pressure differential can discharge it through the
steam trap.
 Boiler header
A boiler header is a specialized type of steam main that can receive steam
from one or more boilers.
It is most often a horizontal line which is fed from the top and in turn feeds the
steam mains. It is important to trap the boiler header properly to assure that any
carryover (boiler water and solids) is removed before distribution into the
system.
 Efficient Steam Utilization

Steam Efficiency
 Failure of a steam pipe joint

Steam Blowing
 Insulation
• Insulator:
low thermal conductor that keeps heat confined within or outside a system
• Benefits
– Reduced fuel consumption
– Better process control
– Corrosion prevention
– Fire protection of equipment
– Absorbing of vibration
– Protects staff: hot surfaces, radiant heat
 Valves
A valve is a device that regulates, directs or controls the flow of a fluid by opening,
closing, or partially obstructing various passageways

Valve Functions
• Stopping and starting fluid flow.
• Varying (throttling) the amount of fluid flow.
• Controlling the direction of fluid flow.
• Regulating downstream system or process pressure.
• Relieving component or piping over pressure.

Classification of Valves
Commonly used valve classifications, based on mechanical motion:

•Linear Motion Valves. The valves in which the closure member, as in gate, globe,
diaphragm, pinch moves in a straight line to allow, stop, or throttle the flow.

•Rotary Motion Valves. When the valve-closure member travels along an angular or
circular path, as in butterfly, ball, plug valves.

•Quarter Turn Valves. Some rotary motion valves require approximately a quarter
turn, 0 through 90 , motion of the stem to go to fully open from a fully closed
position or vice versa.
 Valves

Classifications based on motion:

 Steam Valves

Steam valves are used to control the flow and pressure level of steam and
heated water vapor.

Most applications of Valves to control steam with an important parts.

The major application of valves with steam is to reduce the pressure of the inlet
steam for process application.
In addition to controlling pressure, a steam valve can control temperature.
Industrial processes frequently use steam at lower pressures.

Most types of valves can control steam flow, special service conditions exist with
steam regarding temperature and pressure.
The most commonly used steam valves are listed here.
 Steam Valves Information

Ball valves provide tight shut-off and predictable control. Advantages include
ease of operation and high flow, high pressure, and high temperature
capabilities.

Butterfly valves control the flow of steam with a disk which turns on a
diametrical axis inside a pipe, or by two semicircular plates hinged on a common
spindle, permitting flow in only one direction.
Butterfly valves offer a rotary stem movement of 90 degrees or less in a
compact design.

Globe valves are linear motion valves with rounded bodies.

Advantages include precise throttling and control, as well as high-pressure
limits.

Gate valves are linear motion valves in which a flat closure element slides into
the flow stream to provide shut-off.

Diaphragm valves use a 'pinching' method to stop the valve flow using a
flexible diaphragm..
 Gate Valves

Construction
Flow is controlled by raising or lowering the valving element, which is generally available in
three different types: solid (plain), flexible, and split.
Applications
Gate valves in air, fuel gas, feedwater, steam, lube oil, and other systems are typical
applications of Gate valve.
Advantages
They have good shutoff characteristics.
They are bidirectional.
The pressure loss through the valve is minimal.
Disadvantages
Gate valves are not quick opening or closing valves.
Gate valves require large space for installation, operation.
Repair or machining of valve seats in place is difficult.
 Diaphragm valves

Diaphragm valves use a 'pinching' method to stop the valve flow using a
flexible diaphragm. They are available in two types: weir and straight-way.
The most commonly seen of the two is the weir-type.
Advantages
Valve components can be isolated from the process fluid.
This construction helps prevent leakage of the fluid without the use of a gland seal.

Disadvantages
Not suitable for very high temperature fluids and are mainly used on liquid
systems.
 Globe Valves

Advantages
o Recommended for throttling applications.
o Good for frequent operation.
o Easy to repair.
Disadvantages
o Flow path causes a significant pressure drop.
o Globe valves are more costly than alternative valves.
 Butterfly Valves

In butterfly valves, the flow is regulated through a disc-type element held in place in the center
of the valve by a rod. Similar to ball valves, valve operation time is short because the valving
element is simply rotated a quarter turn (90°) to open or close the passageway.
Advantages
◦ They are suitable for large valve applications.
◦ Compact, lightweight design.
◦ The maintenance costs are usually low.
◦ Pressure drop across a butterfly valve is small.
◦ Used with chemical or corrosive media.
Disadvantages
◦ Difficult to clean
◦ Throttling limited to low differential pressure
◦ Potential for cavitations and choke
◦ Unguided disc movement is affected by flow turbulence
 Ball Valves
Ball valves offer very good shut-off capabilities. A simple quarter-turn (90°) completely opens or
closes the valve. This characteristic minimizes valve operation time and decreases the
likelihood of leakage due to wear from the gland seal.

Advantages
- Maintains and regulates high volume, high
pressure, and high temp flow
- Low purchase and maintenance costs.
- No lubrication requirements.
- Give tight sealing with low torque.
- Time of valve operation is minimized.
- Can be used for throttling service.
- Can handle fluids with suspended solids.

Disadvantages
- Have relatively poor throttling characteristics.
- Difficult to clean, leads to contamination
 Steam Measuring Instruments
Apparatus for accurate steam flow measurement, including differential pressure,
temperature instruments.

The considerations are the effects of pressure variation, steam dryness fraction
and superheat.

A steam flowmeter
 Steam Flow Meter

There are many types of flowmeter, those suitable for steam and
condensate applications include:

 Orifice plate flowmeters.

 Turbine flowmeters (including shunt or bypass types).
 Variable area flowmeters.
 Spring loaded variable area flowmeters.
 Direct in-line variable area (TVA) flowmeters.
 Ultrasonic flowmeters.
 Vortex shedding flowmeters
Orifice plate flowmeters
Orifice plate flowmeters installation
 Turbine flowmeters
Turbine flowmeters for liquids, such as condensate, are typically designed with the
diameter of the rotor slightly less than the inside diameter of the flow metering chamber .

Turbine flowmeters installation

Applications
 Dry saturated steam
 Superheated steam.
 Condensate return lines, however, care must be taken to remove air and flash steam
prior to flow metering.
Advantages
 Can be installed under full process conditions.
 Relatively in-expensive on larger pipelines.
 Low induced pressure drop as there is minimal flow obstruction.
Disadvantages of insertion turbine flowmeters:
 Moving parts require regular maintenance.
 Wet steam can damage the turbine and affect accuracy.