1AEOE421 Air Traffic Control and

Airport management
Unit – 3 – Flight Information Systems
By
Mr. L. Oblisamy/Asst.Prof
Department of Aeronautical
ADCET
 FLIGHT INFORMATION SYSTEMS
Radar service, Basic radar terminology – Identification procedures using primary / secondary radar
– performance checks – use of radar in area and approach control services – assurance control and
co- ordination between radar / non radar control – emergencies – Flight information and advisory
service – Alerting service – Co-ordination and emergency procedures – Rules of the air.
 Course Outcome
Understand Fight information systems and rules of air traffic systems
 Radar service & basic terminology
 Radar - Radio Detection And Ranging.
 Radar is an electronic system which measures the range and bearing of objects by transmitting an
electromagnetic pulse at the object and listening for the echo.
 Radar service may be used for the identification, traffic co-ordination and separation.
 Many types of radar are in use in aviation:
 Area Radars, Surveillance Radars, and Approach Radars allow controllers to track aircraft within their area of
responsibility.
 Precision Approach Radars (PAR) enable controllers to provide precision approach guidance to aircraft
landing in instrument conditions.
 Surface Movement Radar enables controllers to track the movement of aircraft and vehicles on an aerodrome
surface;
 Weather Radar gives pilots situational awareness of hazardous weather.
 Radio Altimeters accurately measure the height of an aircraft above the surface;
 Secondary Surveillance Radar enables aircraft to pass additional information, such as identification and flight
level, back to the interrogating radar.
 The air traffic control radar beacon system (ATCRBS) is a system used in air traffic control (ATC)
to enhance surveillance radar monitoring and separation of air traffic.
 It consists of a rotating ground antenna and transponders in aircraft.
 The ground antenna sweeps a narrow vertical beam of microwaves around the airspace..
 When the beam strikes an aircraft, the transponder transmits a return signal back giving information
such as altitude.
 Information about this aircraft is then entered into the system and subsequently added to the
controller's screen to display this information when queried.
 This information can include flight number, designation and altitude of the aircraft.
 ATCRBS assists air traffic control (ATC) surveillance radars by acquiring information about
the aircraft being monitored, and providing this information to the radar controllers.
 The controllers can use the information to identify radar returns from aircraft.
 Radar Terminology
 ALTITUDE. Vertical distance of an aircraft or object above a given reference, such as ground or sea
level.
 AMPLIFIER. An electronic device used to increase signal magnitude or power.
 AMPLITUDE MODULATION (AM). A method of impressing a message upon a carrier signal by
causing the carrier amplitude to vary proportionally to the message waveform.
 ANTENNA SYSTEM. Routes RF energy from the transmitter, radiates the energy into space, receives
echoes, and routes the echoes to the receiver.
 AGC (AUTOMATIC GAIN CONTROL). A method for automatically obtaining an essentially
constant receiver output amplitude. The amplitude of the received signal in the range gate determines
the AGC bias (a DC voltage) which controls the receiver gain so as to maintain a nearly constant
output even though the amplitude of the input signal changes.
 ANTENNA CROSS TALK. A measure of undesired power transfer through space from one antenna
to another. Ratio of power received by one antenna to power transmitted by the other, usually
expressed in decibels.
 ANTENNA ARRAY. An assembly of antenna elements with dimensions, spacing, and illumination
sequence such that the fields for the individual elements combine to produce a maximum intensity in a
particular direction and minimum field intensities in other directions.
 ANTI-CLUTTER CIRCUITS (IN RADAR). Circuits which attenuate undesired reflections to permit
detection of targets otherwise obscured by such reflections.
 ANTIJAMMING CIRCUIT. Electronic circuit used to minimize the effects of enemy
countermeasures, thereby permitting radar echoes to be visible on the indicator.
 ANTENNA BEAMWIDTH. The angle, in degrees, between the half-power points (-3 dB) of an
antenna beam. The angle is given for both horizontal and vertical planes unless the beam is circular.
 AVERAGE POWER. Output power of a transmitter as measured from the start of one pulse to the start
of the next pulse.
 AZIMUTH. Angular measurement in the horizontal plane in a clockwise direction.
 BEARING RESOLUTION. Ability of a radar to distinguish between targets that are close together in
bearing.
 BEAT FREQUENCIES. Difference and sum frequencies which result from combining two different
frequencies.
 BEAT FREQUENCY OSCILLATOR (BFO). Any oscillator whose output is intended to be mixed with
another signal to produce a sum or difference beat frequency.
 BORESIGHT. The physical axis of a directional antenna. To align a directional antenna, using either an
optical procedure or a fixed target at a known location
 BURST. In data communications, a sequence of signals, noise, or interference counted as a unit in
accordance with some specific criterion or measure.
 CAPTURE BEAM. A wide beam incorporated in capture transmitters of beam rider (command guided)
missile systems to facilitate gaining initial control of a missile immediately after launch. Upon capture, the
system then centres the missile in the narrow guidance beam.
 CO-CHANNEL. The term is used to indicate that two (or more) equipments are operating on the same
frequency.
 CARRIER POWER: (of a radio transmitter): The average power supplied to the antenna transmission
line by a transmitter during one radio frequency cycle.
 Frequency: The term frequency refers to total no. of completed cycles per second. It is expressed in Hz.
 Phase: The term phase refers to phase of EM wave and it is fraction of a full wavelength. It is measured
in radians or degrees.
 Bandwidth: The term bandwidth is the frequency difference between upper frequency and lower
frequency on EM spectrum radiation. It is expressed in Hz.
 Wavelength: The term Wavelength is basically distance from wavecrest to wavecrest along direction of
travel of EM wave. The unit is centimeter.
 Pulse Width: The term Pulse Width is time interval between leading and trailing edge of a pulse at a
point where their amplitudes are 50% of the max. values. The unit is microseconds.
 PRF : The term PRF refers to Pulse Repetition Frequency which is no. of peak power pulses transmitted
per second.
 PRT: The radar term PRT refers to Pulse Repetition Time. It is the time interval between two peak pulses.
 Duty factor: The term Duty factor is the amount of time radar transmits compare to listening time. It is
often expressed in percent. It is calculated by multiplying PRF and pulse width OR
by dividing pulse width with PRT.
 Radar Reflectivity Factor (dBZ): The unit dBZ is the logarithmic Scale for measuring Radar reflectivity factor.
dBZ = 10 log( Z mm6 / 1 m3)
This dBZ value calculated using above equation, is what usually we will see displayed on the radar screen. Basically
a measure of how much power was scattered back to the radar from the target.
 Bistatic radar: has two antennas; one for transmission and the other for reception. These antennas either located side
by side or they are located far away.
 Monostatic radar: is a radar which uses common antenna for transmission as well as reception OR uses two adjacent
antennas for the same.
 2D radar or two dimensional radar provides azimuth and range information.
 3D radar produces three dimensional position data of the target. It covers range, azimuth and also height.
 RADAR CROSS SECTION. A measure of the radar reflection characteristics of a target. It is equal to the power
reflected back to the radar divided by power density of the wave striking the target.
 RECEIVER. In radar, a unit that converts rf echoes to video and/or audio signals.
 RECEIVER SELECTIVITY. The degree to which a receiver is capable of differentiating between the desired signal
and signals or interference at other frequencies. (The narrower the receiver bandwidth, the greater the selectivity.)
 RECEIVER SENSITIVITY. The degree to which a receiver can usefully detect a weak signal.
 SCAN. To transverse or sweep a sector or volume of airspace with a recurring pattern, by means of a controlled
directional beam from a radar antenna.
 Primary & Secondary Radar
 Radar capabilities at airports vary. Generally, two types of radar are used by air traffic control (ATC)
 The primary radar transmits directional UHF or SHF radio waves sequentially in all directions.
 When the radio waves encounter an aircraft, part of those waves reflect back to a ground antenna.
 Calculations are made in a receiver to determine the direction and distance of the aircraft from the
transmitter.
 A blip or target representing the aircraft is displayed on a radar screen also known as a plan position
indicator (PPI).
 A secondary surveillance radar (SSR) is used by ATC to verify the aircraft’s position and to add the
third dimension of altitude to its location.
 Solid state (SSD) radar transmits coded pulse train that are received by the transponder on board the
aircraft.
 Solid-state radar has electronically built-in sensors that allow for multiple sensors to work together
cohesively without any in-band interference
 The ground station transmits a pulse of energy at 1030 MHz and the transponder transmits a reply with
the assigned code attached at 1090 MHz.
 This confirms the aircraft’s location typically by altering its target symbol on the radar screen.
 As the screen may be filled with many confirmed aircraft, ATC can also ask the pilot to ident
 By pressing the IDENT button on the transponder, it transmits in such a way that the aircraft’s target
symbol is highlighted on the PPI to be distinguishable.
 To gain altitude clarification, the transponder control must be placed in the ALT or Mode C position.
 The signal transmitted back to ATC in response to pulse interrogation is then modified with a code that
places the pressure altitude of the aircraft next to the target symbol on the radar screen.
 The transponder gets the pressure altitude of the aircraft from an altitude encoder that is electrically
connected to the transponder.
 The ATC/aircraft transponder system described is known as Air Traffic Control Radar Beacon System
(ATCRBS).
 To increase safety, Mode S altitude response has been developed.
 Mode S is a Secondary Surveillance Radar process that allows selective interrogation of aircraft.
 With Mode S, each aircraft is pre-assigned a unique identity code that displays along with its pressure
altitude on ATC radar when the transponder responds to SSR interrogation.
Solid State Radar
Mode S Transponder
 Since no other aircraft respond with this code, the chance of two pilots selecting the same response
code on the transponder is eliminated.
 Mode S is sometimes referred to as mode select. It is a data packet protocol that is also used in onboard
collision avoidance systems.
 When used by ATC, Mode S interrogates one aircraft at a time. Transponder workload is reduced by not
having to respond to all interrogations in an airspace.
 Additionally, location information is more accurate with Mode S.
 The phase of the transponder reply is used to calculate position, called monopulse, is sufficient to locate
the aircraft.
 Mode S also contains capacity for a wider variety of information exchange.
 RADAR PERFORMANCE CHECKS
 Daily radar performance checks and special radar accuracy checks of long-range radar (LRR) systems
used by FAA for ATC must be accomplished as follows:
 A) Radar systems performance must be evaluated by radar-qualified air traffic controllers through
daily observations and use of the radar systems.
 FAA Flight Check aircraft may be used to assist the controller in performing radar checks..
 Controllers should utilize Flight Check aircraft to verify radar video and fixed map accuracy when
necessary.
 B) Accuracy of radar display systems must be certified on a daily basis. For digitized (narrowband)
radar systems, this check is performed by the computer program and is certified daily by Technical
Operations personnel.
 Controllers must monitor the acceptability of the digitized system by indirect methods; e.g., stability
and accuracy of presentation, visible alarm lights, and accuracy of registration.
 C) Narrowband radar systems must not be used for operational purposes unless they are certified by
the appropriate Technical Operations personnel.
 SPECIAL RADAR ACCURACY CHECKS:
 A) When these checks are made, consider video and fixed map accuracy. To ensure a thorough
understanding of the program and its objectives by all personnel, close coordination is required among air
traffic and technical operations personnel.
 Initial coordination for common digitizer radar accuracy flight checks is effected by the Maintenance
Control Center (MCC) coordinator with the facility's test coordinator and Technical Operations.
 Assure that other aircraft within the same radar coverage as the Flight Check aircraft are not assigned the
same beacon code and that the beacon code assigned the Flight Check aircraft is not changed.
 B) The ARTCC air traffic manager must ensure that a sufficient number of controllers are fully qualified to
participate in the special radar accuracy check. A detailed list of minimum accuracy requirements of the
radar must be made available to the controller/s.
 C) The controller/s assigned to participate in these checks must be thoroughly familiar with the
requirements set forth herein as well as the commissioning flight inspection data.
 D) When necessary, ARTCC controllers must:
 1. Check the accuracy of as many of the predetermined checkpoints as possible while the Flight Check
aircraft is operating within the area of radar coverage.
 2. Request the pilot to advise when he/she is over each predetermined checkpoint. When these checks are
being conducted, the pilot must alert the controller that the checkpoint is being approached and state
“mark” when over the point.
 3. Do not change the previously assigned discrete beacon code.
 E) Satisfactory radar performance of video and fixed map accuracy will be such that an aircraft reporting
over a checkpoint will be within a circular area about the checkpoint, the radius of which is 3 percent of
the distance from the checkpoint
 DEFICIENCIES IN SYSTEM:
 After consultation with the Technical Operations representative, the ARTCC air traffic manager or his/her
designated representative must decide if the radar system is usable. Consider atmospheric or other
phenomena that may temporarily affect the radar performance.
 A certification by Technical Operations personnel that the malfunction has been corrected must be entered
on the sector's log
 RADAR IN THE AIR TRAFFIC CONTROL SERVICE

 Direct pilot controller communications shall be established prior to the provision of radar services.
 The number of aircraft simultaneously provided with ATS surveillance services shall not exceed that
which can safely be handled depending on the structural complexity of the control area and sector
capacity
 the functions to be performed within the control area
 the controller workload
 the technical availability of the radar.
 The information provided by the radar and presented on a situation display may be used to perform
the function of air traffic control service:
 Provide radar services as necessary in order to improve airspace utilization, reduce delays, provide
for direct routings and more optimum flight profiles, as well as to enhance safety
 Provide vectoring to aircraft for the purpose of resolving potential conflicts
 Provide vectoring to arriving aircraft for the purpose of establishing an expeditious and efficient approach
sequence
 Provide vectoring to assist pilots in their navigation to or from a radio navigation aid and/or away from or
around areas of adverse weather
 Provide separation and maintain normal traffic flow when an aircraft experiences communication failure
within the area of coverage
 Maintain flight path monitoring of air traffic
 When applicable, monitor the progress of air traffic, in order to provide a procedural control with:
 Improved position information regarding aircraft under control
 Supplementary information regarding other traffic
 Information regarding any significant deviations by aircraft.
 USE OF RADAR IN THE APPROACH CONTROL SERVICE

 RADAR FUNCTIONS
 the radar system may be used to perform the following additional functions in the provision of
approach control service:
 Provide vectoring of arriving traffic on to final approach aids
 Provide flight path monitoring of parallel ILS approaches and instruct aircraft to take appropriate
action
 Provide vectoring of arriving traffic to a point from which a visual approach can be completed
 Provide vectoring of arriving traffic to a point from which a precision radar approach can be made
 Provide flight path monitoring of other pilot-interpreted approaches
 Provide separation between arriving and succeeding arriving aircraft
 Provide separation between a departing aircraft and succeeding departing aircraft
 VECTORING PROCEDURE
 Prior to vectoring for approach, the pilot shall be advised of the type of approach and the runway to be
used. The controller could advise an aircraft being vectored for an instrument approach of its position at
least once prior to commencement of the final approach.
 Aircraft vectored for final approach shall be given a heading or a series of headings calculated to close
with the final approach track:
 The final vector shall enable the aircraft to be established in level flight on the final approach track prior to
intercepting the specified or nominal descent point or glide path (if an ILS or radar approach is to be
made), and should provide an intercept angle with the final approach track of 45 degrees or less.
 The controller should anticipate the interception manoeuvre and should provide interception about 30sec
minimum before the final approach fix or point.
 Whenever an aircraft is assigned a vector which takes it through the final approach track, it will be advised
accordingly, stating the reason for the vector. This means that the clearance of the final approach track is
issued with the last vector in the interception of the final approach track.
 An aircraft vectored to intercept a final approach aid (ILS, VOR, NDB) shall be instructed to report when
established on the final approach track. Clearance for the approach should be issued prior to when the
aircraft reports established.
 Circling approach

Course reversal (Procedural turn)

Final approach point

Constant FL
Heading point

Runway
centerline

Controller to
anticipate
45o or less
intersection Glide angle Runway
manoeuvre 30
secs before
 SEPARATION
 The controller is responsible for maintaining separation minimum between succeeding aircraft on the same
final approach except that the responsibility may be transferred to the aerodrome controller if it has a radar
system.
 TRANSFER OF CONTROL
 Transfer of control of succeeding aircraft on final approach to the aerodrome controller shall be done in
accordance with procedures.
 Transfer of communication to the aerodrome controller should be performed at such a point or time that
clearance to land or alternative instructions can be issued to the aircraft in a timely manner.
 RADAR VECTORING BEFORE A VISUAL APPROACH
 The controller may initiate a vectoring of an aircraft for visual approach and meteorological conditions are
such that, with reasonable assurance, a visual approach and landing can be completed.
 Clearance for visual approach shall be issued only after the pilot has reported the aerodrome or the
preceding aircraft in sight.
 RADAR APPROACHES
 There are two types of radar approaches: Precision (PAR) and Surveillance (ASR).
 Controllers conducting radar approach shall be in possession of information regarding the obstacle
clearance altitude/heights.
 Approach surveillance radar (ASR or SRA) is a type of radar instrument approach provided with active
assistance from air traffic control.
 The only airborne radio equipment required for radar approaches is a functioning radio transmitter and
receiver.
 The radar controller vectors the aircraft to align it with the runway centreline.
 The controller continues the vectors to keep the aircraft on course until the pilot can complete the approach
and landing by visual reference to the surface.
 Coordination of traffic under
radar and non-radar control
 Appropriate arrangements shall be made in any air traffic control unit using radar to ensure the
coordination of traffic under radar control with traffic under non-radar control.
 1. To ensure the provision of adequate separation between the radar-controlled aircraft and all other
controlled aircraft.
 2.Radar separation based on the use of Remote Pilot Station (RPS) shall be applied
 3.Under no circumstances the edges of the radar position should touch or overlap
 4.Radar separation be maintained between the radar-controlled flights and any other observed radar
position
 To this end, close liaison shall be maintained at all times between radar controllers and non-radar
controllers.
 Non Radar control:
 A method of providing Air Traffic Control service without the use of radar.
 Used in Low Traffic Airports
 Radar Control services:
 Services for D & B Airspace
 Radar Advisory Service to C Airspace
 Radar Flight Information Service to E airspace
 Horizontal radar separation minimum:
 5 NM horizontal radar separation up to 60 NM from radar head
 6 NM horizontal radar separation to aircraft in the approach and departure phases of flight
 Techniques of Non Radar Control :
 By Horizontal separation between Aircrafts, based upon time, or routes, or aircraft position based on
ground-based navigation aids.
 By route intersection points, easiest Non Radar control.
 Emergencies and procedures
 PIC is directly responsible for and is the final authority as to the operation of that aircraft.
 In an emergency requiring immediate action, the pilot-in-command and remote pilot-in-command
may deviate from FAR 91 or FAR 107 respectively, to the extend required to meet the emergency.
 If the PIC choses to deviate from the provisions of an ATC clearance, the PIC must notify ATC as
soon as possible and obtain an amended clearance.
 Unless deviation is necessary under the emergency authority of 91.3, pilots of IFR flights
experiencing two-way radio communication failure are expected to adhere to the procedures
prescribed under "IFR operations, two-way radio communications failure“.
 Troubleshooting is important but don't fix an airplane airborne when you can safely land first
 Declare emergencies with general terms, use "electrical" or "engine" for example
 The PIC must notify ATC as soon as possible and obtain an amended clearance
 Discrete emergency frequencies may be assigned by ATC. 121.5 MHz and 243.0 MHz are
emergency frequencies.
 ALWAYS:
 Aircraft control - MAINTAIN
 Precise nature of problem - DETERMINE
 Applicable emergency procedures - EXECUTE
 Appropriate landing criteria - DETERMINE AND EXECUTE
 As always, the most important emergency procedure you can ever remember is to aviate, navigate, and then communicate
 These three steps are really a continuous process which never stops requiring pilot judgment to prioritize steps.
 Aviate:
 Complete any immediate action procedures that may be required
 Reduce the electrical load, as required, to buy yourself time
 Navigate:
 Evaluate the situation and determine if you think the aircraft needs to land as soon as possible.
 Depending on your decision and the situation at hand, prepare for arrival
 Remember that without electrical power to your instruments, you will have to rely on dead reckoning or radar vectors from
ATC.
 Communicate:
 Contact ATC if able
 If you have not already had to address your passengers, take the time to do so now
 If you have a hand held radio, break it out and attempt to establish radio communication, as able, with a local agency.
 Flight Information & Advisory Services
 Flight Information service is a service provided for the purpose of giving advice and information useful
for the safe and efficient conduct of flights.
 Scope of flight information service:
 Flight information service shall include the provision of:
 Information on changes in the serviceability of navigation aids.
 Information on changes in condition of aerodromes and associated facilities, and any other information likely to
affect safety.
 Weather conditions reported or forecast at departure, destination and alternate aerodromes;
 Collision hazards, to aircraft operating in airspace Classes D, E, F and G;
 Aircraft shall make routine air reports at the designated reporting points on designated ATS routes
 Special observations whenever encountered following weather phenomenon:
 Moderate to severe turbulence,
 Severe icing,
 Low level wind shear
 Recording and transmission of information on the progress of flights - recorded by the air traffic services unit serving the
FIR within which the aircraft is flying in such a manner that it is available for reference and in case it is requested for
search and rescue action;
 Transfer of responsibility for the provision of flight information service - ATS unit shall, as far as practicable, continue to
provide flight information service to the flight until it has established two-way communication with the appropriate ATS
unit in the FIR it is entering.
 Transmission of information - method of directed transmission on the initiative of the appropriate ATS unit to an aircraft,
e.g. the sudden occurrence of hazards, a change of the runway-in-use, or the failure of a key approach and landing aid.
 Operational flight information service (OFIS) broadcasts
 Automatic Terminal Information Service (ATIS):
 (ATIS) message is intended to provide a pilot with a range of information to enable him to make a definite decision about
his approach and landing or take-off. It reduces the communication load on the ATS VHF air-ground communication
channels.
 The information communicated shall relate to a single aerodrome.
 The information communicated shall be updated immediately whenever a significant change occurs.
 The preparation and dissemination of the ATIS message shall be the responsibility of the ATS unit.
 Aircraft shall acknowledge receipt of the information upon establishing communication with the ATS unit providing
approach control service or aerodrome control tower.
 The aerodrome control tower shall, when replying to the message, in the case of arriving aircraft, appropriate ATS Unit
shall provide the aircraft with the current altimeter setting when first cleared to an altitude below the transition level.
 When rapidly changing meteorological conditions make it inadvisable to include a weather report in the ATIS, the ATIS
messages shall indicate that the relevant weather information will be given on initial contact with the appropriate ATS
unit.
 The ATIS broadcast messages contain information for arriving and departing aircraft consisting of the following elements
of information in the order listed:
 A) Name of aerodrome
 B) the word “INFORMATION” and identification letter from the ICAO alphabet;
 C) Time of observation;
 D) Type of approach (es) to be expected;
 E) The runway(s) in use;
 F) Other essential operational information;
 G) Surface wind direction and speed
 H) Present weather;
 I) Air temperature
 J) Altimeter settings
 Air Traffic Advisory Service
 The objective of the air traffic advisory service is to make information on collision hazards more
effective than it would be in the mere provision of flight information service.
 It may be provided to aircraft conducting IFR flights in advisory airspace or on advisory routes.
 Air traffic advisory service does not deliver “clearances” but only “advisory information” and it uses
the word “advise” or “suggest” when a course of action is proposed to an aircraft.
 Air traffic advisory service does not afford the degree of safety and cannot assume the same
responsibilities as air traffic control service in respect of the avoidance of collisions.
 An air traffic services unit providing air traffic advisory service shall:
 Advise the aircraft to depart at the time specified and to cruise at the levels indicated in the flight
plan if it does not foresee any conflict with other known traffic.
 Suggest to aircraft a course of action by which a potential hazard may be avoided, giving priority to
an aircraft already in advisory airspace over other aircraft.
 Pass to aircraft traffic information comprising the same information as that prescribed for area
control service.
 Alerting service
 Alerting service shall be provided:
 A) for all aircraft provided with air traffic control service;
 B) to all other aircraft having filed a flight plan or otherwise known to the air traffic services;
 Flight information centres or area control centers shall serve as the central point for collecting all information relevant
to a state of emergency of an aircraft operating within the flight information region and forwarding such information to
the appropriate rescue coordination centre.
 Emergency arising to an aircraft while it is under the control of an aerodrome control tower or approach control unit,
such unit shall notify immediately the flight information centre.
 Whenever the urgency of the situation so requires, the aerodrome control tower or approach control unit responsible
shall first alert and take other necessary steps to set in motion all appropriate local rescue and emergency organizations.
 Notification of rescue coordination centers:
 A) Uncertainty phase when:
 1) no communication has been received from an aircraft within a period of thirty minutes after the time a
communication should have been received.
 2) an aircraft fails to arrive within thirty minutes of the estimated time of arrival last notified to or estimated by air
traffic services units
 B) Alert phase when:
 an aircraft has been cleared to land and fails to land within five minutes of the estimated time of landing.
 information has been received which indicates that the operating efficiency of the aircraft has been
impaired, but not to the extent that a forced landing is likely, that would affect the safety of the aircraft
and its occupants.
 an aircraft is known or believed to be the subject of unlawful interference.
 C) Distress phase when:
 following the alert phase, further unsuccessful attempts to establish communication with the aircraft
probability that the aircraft is in distress.
 the fuel on board is considered to be exhausted,
 information is received which indicates that the operating efficiency of the aircraft has been impaired to
the extent that a forced landing is likely.
 The notification shall contain such of the following information:
 A) the phase of the emergency (Uncertainty, distress, alert)
 B) agency and person calling;
 C) nature of the emergency
 D) significant information from the flight plan;
 E) unit which made last contact, time and means used
 F) last position report
 G) colour and distinctive marks of aircraft;
 H) dangerous goods carried as cargo;
 I) any action taken by reporting office;
 Such part of the information specified is made to a rescue coordination centre should be sought by an air
traffic services unit prior to the declaration of a distress phase.
 Plotting aircraft in a state of emergency
 The flights of other aircraft known to be operating in the vicinity of the aircraft involved shall also be plotted
in order to determine their probable future positions and maximum endurance in a state of emergency.
 Information to the operator
 When an area control or a flight information center decides that an aircraft is in the uncertainty or the alert
phase, advise the operator prior to notifying the rescue coordination centre without delay.
 Rules of the air
 Aircraft overtaking another aircraft shall pass on the right.
 An aircraft in flight or manoeuvring must give way to an aircraft that is landing.
 Do not pass over or under, or cross ahead of, another aircraft if you are not far enough away to not
create a risk of collision.
 No person shall create a hazard to persons or property on the surface by dropping an object from an
aircraft in flight
 Over built up areas, an aircraft must remain minimum altitude of 1000 ft above and 2000 ft from an
obstacle. (except for take off and landing)
 Over rural areas, an aircraft must remain 500 ft from an obstacle.
 Exceptions to minimum altitudes: 1000’
 for the purpose of saving human life 2000’
 for the purpose of fighting forest fires
 for the purpose of flight training when a qualified instructor is
onboard
Aerobatics shall not be conducted:
 Over a built up area or an open assembly of people.

 In controlled airspace except with a special flight operations certificate

 When visibility is less than 3 miles

 Below 2000 ft AGL except in accordance with special flight operations certificate.

 Aerobatics shall not be conducted with passengers on board unless the PIC has:

 10 hours of aerobatic instruction or 20 hours conducting aerobatics

 At least one hour of conducting aerobatic manoeuvres in the last 6 months

 No towing by another aircraft

 No flying in Restricted Areas.

 Alerting services
 Collision Avoidance Systems:
 The ever increasing volume of air traffic has caused a corresponding increase in concern over collision
avoidance.
 Onboard collision avoidance equipment, in larger aircraft, is now common in general aviation aircraft.
 Traffic Collision Avoidance Systems (TCAS):
 (TCAS) are transponder based air-to-air traffic monitoring and alerting systems.
 There are two classes of TCAS. TCAS I was developed to accommodate the general aviation
community and regional airlines.
 This system identifies traffic in a 35–40 mile range of the aircraft and issues Traffic Advisories to assist
pilots in visual acquisition of intruder aircraft.
 TCAS II is a more sophisticated system. It is required internationally in aircraft weighing more than
15,000 kg.
 TCAS II provides the information but also analyzes the projected flightpath of approaching aircraft.
 If a collision or near miss is imminent, the TCAS II computer issues a Resolution Advisory (RA).
 This is an aural command to the pilot to take a specific evasive action.
 The transponder of an aircraft with TCAS is able to interrogate the transponders of other aircraft nearby
using SSR technology (Mode S). This is done with a 1030 MHz signal.
 Interrogated aircraft transponders reply with an encoded 1090 MHz signal that allows the TCAS computer
to display the position and altitude of each aircraft.
 Should the aircraft come within the horizontal or vertical distances shown in Figure, an audible TA is
announced.
 TCAS II equipped aircraft use continuous reply information to analyze the speed and trajectory of target
aircraft in close proximity.
 If a collision is calculated to be imminent, an RA is issued.
 Different colors and shapes are used to depict approaching aircraft depending on the imminent threat level.
 Since RAs are currently limited to vertical evasive maneuvers, some stand-alone TCAS displays are
electronic vertical speed indicators,
 TCAS may be referred to as airborne collision avoidance system (ACAS), which is the international name
for the same system.
 ADS – B:
 Increasing the number of aircraft using the same quantity of airspace and ground facilities requires the
implementation of new technologies to maintain a high level of performance and safety.
 The successful proliferation of global navigation satellite systems (GNSS), such as GPS,has led to the
development of a collision avoidance system known as automatic dependant surveillance broadcast
(ADS-B).
 ADS-B is considered in two segments: ADS-B OUT and ADS-B IN.
 ADS-B OUT combines the positioning information available from a GPS receiver with on-board flight
status information, i.e. location including altitude, velocity, and time.
 It then broadcasts this information to other ADS-B equipped aircraft and ground stations.
 Two different frequencies are used to carry these broadcasts with data link capability. The first is an
expanded use of the 1090 MHz Mode-S transponder protocol known as 1090 ES.
 The second, largely being introduced as a new broadband solution for general aviation implementation
of ADS-B, is at 978 MHz.
 Airborne receivers of an ADS-B broadcast use the information to plot the location and movement of the
transmitting aircraft on a flight deck display similar to TCAS.
 Ground stations share information from airborne ADS-B broadcasts with other ground stations that are
part of the air traffic management system (ATMS).
 For traffic separation and control, ADS-B has several advantages over conventional ground-based
radar.
 The first is the entire airspace can be covered with a much lower expense.
 Additionally, ADS-B provides more accurate information since the vector state is generated from the
aircraft with the help of GPS satellites.
 Increased positioning accuracy allows for higher density traffic flow and landing approaches, an
obvious requirement to operate more aircraft in and out of the same number of facilities.
 The higher degree of control available also enables routing for fewer weather delays and optimal fuel
burn rates.
 Collision avoidance is expanded to include runway incursion from other aircraft and support vehicles
on the surface of an airport.
 Equipped aircraft are able to receive abundant data to enhance situational awareness which TCAS
cannot do.
 Traffic information services-broadcast supply traffic information from non-ADS-B aircraft and ADS-B
aircraft on a different frequency.
 Ground radar monitoring of surface targets, and any traffic data in the linked network of ground
stations is sent via ADS-B to the flight deck.
 ADS-B test units are available for trained maintenance personnel to verify proper operation of ADS-B
equipment.
 This is critical since close tolerance of air traffic separation depends on accurate data from each aircraft
and throughout all components of the ADS-B system