1AEOE421 Air Traffic

Control and Airport Design

Unit – 2 – Air Traffic Systems
By
Mr. L. Oblisamy/Asst.Prof
Department of Aeronautical
ADCET
AIR TRAFFIC SYSTEMS
 Area control service, assignment of cruising levels –
minimum flight altitudes – ATS routes and significant points –
RNAV & RNP – Vertical, lateral and longitudinal separation
based on time/distance – ATC clearances – Flight plans –
Position report.
Course Outcome
 Understand the flight information system and rules of air
traffic system.
 Area Control Service:
 The provision of air traffic control service for controlled flights, except for those parts of
such flights which are under the jurisdiction of Approach Control or Aerodrome Control to
accomplish following objectives:
 a) Prevent collisions between aircraft
 b) Expedite and maintain an orderly flow of air traffic.
 In air traffic control an area control center (ACC), also known as a center (or in some
cases, en-route, as opposed to TRACON), is a facility responsible for controlling aircraft
en route in a particular volume of airspace at high altitudes between airport approaches and
departures. In the US, such a center is referred to as an air route traffic control center
(ARTCC).
 A Center typically accepts traffic from, and ultimately passes traffic to the terminal control
center or of another center.
 In some cases, the function of an Area Control Center and a terminal control center are
combined in a single facility. For example, NATS combines the London Terminal Control
Centre (LTCC) and London Area Control Centre (LACC) in Swanwick in the UK.
 Assignment of the minimum cruising level:
 Cruising level is a level maintained during a significant portion of a flight. Also, Cruising
altitude is an altitude or flight level maintained during en-route level flight. This is a constant
altitude.
 Cruising levels which specifies assignment of vertical separation minimum of 1000 ft based on
direction of flight.
 Traffic permitting, ATC will assign the flight planned level in accordance with the table of semi-
circular system of Cruising Levels.
 Semi circular rule defines the aircraft has track between 0° and 179°, your flight level or altitude
must be odd. Your aircraft has track between 180° and 359°, your flight level or altitude must be
even.
 Cruising levels below the minimum specified in ENR 3.1 will not be assigned.
 ENR 3.1 represents Low Altitude ATS Route Structure
 The low altitude route structure is for use from 1,200 feet above the surface (or in some instances
higher) up to but not including 18,000 feet MSL.
 Route designators and significant points defining the routes are listed in FAA Order JO 7400.11,
Airspace Designations and Reporting Points.
 Applicable route tracks, radials, distances between points, changeover points, cruising altitudes
for direction of flight, upper and lower limits, minimum flight altitudes and ARTCC boundaries
are published on the IFR Enroute Low Altitude - chart series.
 The low altitude routes are designated as Class E airspace.
 IFR Enroute Low Altitude Charts provide
aeronautical information for navigation under
instrument flight rules below 18,000 feet MSL

Semi-Circular rule

Chart series includes:

• Air Traffic Services
• Airports that have an Instrument
Approach Procedure or a minimum
3000' hard surface runway
• Airways/Route Data
• Cruising Altitudes
• Fixes/ATC Reporting Points
• Limits of controlled airspace
• Military Training Routes
• Off Route Obstruction Clearance
Altitudes (OROCA)
• Radio aids to navigation
• RNAV Routes
• Special Use Airspace Areas
• Tabulations (MTRs, SUAs, MOAs,
Airport data)
 These specific instructions take into account the predominant traffic flows
within and between the regions, as well as the unique characteristics of each
State‘s cruising level procedures.
 With only 300 metres (1000 ft) separating the respective cruising levels,
every effort must be made to standardize and simplify procedures.
 This reduces complexity for air traffic controllers and for flight crews.

 Minimum flight altitudes:

 Minimum flight altitudes are created first to ensure safety, awareness and
adequate radio navigation reception for aircraft flying at the same time in
specific airspaces or on ATS routes.
 A pilot shall respect them as mandatory because they ensure the proper
flight operation in different airspace or ATS routes (mountainous,
hazardous…) allowing proper navigational functions. FL- defined for VFR
and IFR.
 An altitude allowing adequate vertical clearance from nearby terrain and
manmade obstacles, and allowing proper navigational functions.
 Pilots should be aware of the meaning of “Altitude or Height”; we can
define it as the elevation from a ground reference point. At the same time,
there are several types of altitudes that pilots should be familiarized with
  Indicated altitude: The altitude that the pilot is able to read at the altimeter.
  True altitude: the expressed altitude in terms above the sea level.
  Height: the altitude in terms of distance above a certain point.
 The minimum IFRaltitude provides obstacle clearance but may or may not be within controlled air
space.
 When minimum altitudes are not specified, the following rules apply:
 In a designated mountainous area, 2000 ft above the highest obstacle within a horizontal distance o
f 5 statute miles from the course to be flown.
 In other than mountainous areas, 1000 ft above the highest obstacle within 5 statute miles from the
course to be flown.
 In other cases, as authorized by ATC (air traffic control) or by the operator.

 Minimum En-route Altitude (MEA):

 Minimum En-route Altitude named MEA is the altitude for an en-route segment that provides
adequate reception of relevant navigation facilities and ATS communications complies with the
airspace structure and provides the required obstacle clearance.
 Pilots should know that MEA will assure:
  proper reception of navigation aids
  two-way communication with ATC
  safe clearance or margin from obstacles
  adherence to ATC or local procedures
 Minimum Obstacle Clearance Altitude (MOCA) :
 Minimum Obstacle Clearance Altitude named MOCA is the minimum altitude for a
defined segment that provides the required obstacle clearance.
 Charts will provide the proper horizontal and vertical separation at those areas
where the existence of obstacles could be a factor for the safety of flights .
 The MOCA will specify minimum vertical separation of 1000ft (300m) from the
ground or landmarks.
 The MOCA may put an aircraft below ATC radar coverage (MRVA) and/or below
the minimum reception altitude (MRA).
 Pilots flying in the USA should know that the MOCA assures also 22NM VOR
reception range.
 At the same time, certain aspects could affect this value, factors like terrain or
mountainous areas could change this value according to the following
circumstances.
 The MOCA will specify minimum vertical separation:
  1000ft (300m) separation when the obstacle elevations is below 3000ft (900m)
  1500ft (450m) separation when the obstacle elevations is between 3000ft (900m)
to 5000ft (1500m).
  2000ft (600m) separation when the obstacle elevations is greater than 5000ft
(1500m or more).
 ATS Routes & significant points
 ATS Route is a specified route designed for channelling the flow of traffic as
necessary for the provision of air traffic services.
 An ATS route is defined by route specifications which include an ATS route
designator, the track to or from significant points (waypoints), distance between
significant points, reporting requirements and, as determined by the appropriate
ATS authority.
 All aircraft operating into/from across India shall follow the prescribed route.
 Aircraft shall obtain ATC clearance from the appropriate ATS unit at least 10
minutes prior to entering controlled airspace.
 All aircraft transiting from one Flight Information Region (FIR) to another FIR
shall forward estimates for FIR boundary including flight level to the ATS unit
responsible for providing flight information service in the FIR to be entered, at
least 10 minutes prior to the entry
 Flight information region (FIR) is a specified region of airspace in which a flight
information service are provided. Larger countries' airspace is subdivided into a
number of regional FIRs.
 Position reports to the appropriate ATS units shall be made.
 The lateral and vertical limits of the ATS routes have been given.
 Scheduled international flights are permitted to flight plan using domestic
ATS routes segments to/from destination, departure and approved alternate
airports in India which are not connected by international ATS route.
 A longitudinal separation minimum of 15 minutes shall be applicable
between the aircraft flying on same track unless otherwise specified in the
remarks column of relevant ATS route.
 ATC will apply 50NM longitudinal separation minima between suitably
equipped aircraft which are approved for operations on those segments of
the routes.
 If it is necessary to change the cruising level of an aircraft operating along
an established ATS route the change shall, whenever possible, be effected
within controlled airspace.
 Air Traffic Service is provided to aircraft as indicated against ATS routes.
 Flying outside of ATS routes is prohibited countries FIRs, unless
otherwise authorised by ATC.
 Monitoring of aircraft navigation performance is a joint responsibility
between Operators, States of Registry or States of Operators (as
applicable), regulatory authorities and the ATS providers.
 RNAV and RNP
 Area Navigation (RNAV) refers to a method of navigation which permits
aircraft operation on any desired flight path within the coverage of ground-
or space-based navigation aids.
 RNAV systems have been available for a number of years and may utilize
scanning DME, inertial navigation, GPS, TACAN, or other multi-sensor
capability.
 RNAV routes and terminal procedures, including departure procedures
(DPs) and standard terminal arrivals (STARs), are designed with RNAV
systems.
 There are several potential advantages of RNAV routes and procedures:
 1. Time and fuel savings,
 2. Reduced dependence on radar vectoring, altitude, and speed assignments
allowing a reduction in required ATC radio transmissions.
 3. More efficient use of airspace.
VOR
 Tactical Air Navigation (TACAN)
Distance
Measuring
Equipment
(DME)

VORTAC
 RNAV Operations:
 Pilots should possess a working knowledge of their aircraft navigation system to
ensure RNAV procedures are flown in an appropriate manner.
 In addition, pilots should have an understanding of the various waypoint and leg
types used in RNAV procedures.
 1. Waypoints: A waypoint is a predetermined geographical position that is
defined in terms of latitude/longitude coordinates.
 A waypoint is most often used to indicate a change in direction, speed, or
altitude along the desired path.
 RNAV procedures make use of both fly-over and fly-by waypoints.
 (a). Fly-by waypoints: Fly-by waypoints are used when an aircraft should begin
a turn to the next course prior to reaching the waypoint separating the two route
segments. This is known as turn anticipation.
 (b). Fly-over waypoints: Fly-over waypoints are used when the aircraft must
fly over the point prior to starting a turn.
Fly-by & Fly-over waypoints Direct to fix leg
and Track to fix leg type

Radius to fix leg

Course to fix leg
 2. RNAV Leg type:
 A leg type describes the desired path proceeding, following, or between
waypoints on an RNAV procedure.
 Leg types are identified by a two-letter code that describes the path and the
termination point
 Leg types used for procedure design are included in the aircraft navigation
database.
 The path and terminator concept defines that every leg of a procedure has a
termination point and some kind of path into that termination point.
 (a) Track to Fix: A Track to Fix (TF) leg is intercepted and acquired as the flight
track to the following waypoint. Called as point – to – point legs.
 (b) Direct to Fix. A Direct to Fix (DF) leg is a path described by an aircraft's
track from an initial area direct to the next waypoint.
 (c) Course to Fix. A Course to Fix (CF) leg is a path that terminates at a fix with
a specified course at that fix.
 (d) Radius to Fix. A Radius to Fix (RF) leg is defined as a constant radius
circular path around a defined turn center that terminates at a fix.
 (e) Heading. A Heading leg may be defined as, but not limited to, a Heading to
Altitude (VA), Heading to DME range (VD)
 3. Navigation Issues: Pilots should be aware of their navigation system
inputs, alerts in order to make better-informed decisions. Such as GPS,
DME, VOR, Inertial Navigation.
 4. Flight Management System (FMS). An FMS is an integrated suite of
sensors, receivers, and computers, coupled with a navigation database.
These systems generally provide performance and RNAV guidance to
displays and automatic flight control systems.
 Inputs can be accepted from multiple sources such as GPS, DME, VOR,
IRU.
 These inputs may be applied to a navigation solution one at a time or in
combination.
 Some FMSs provide for the detection and isolation of faulty navigation
information.
 FMSs will normally rely on GPS and/or DME
Required Navigation Performance
(RNP)
 Latest-generation area navigation (RNAV) system which supports on-board
performance monitoring and alerting.
 RNP allows the aircraft to be flown along a precise flight path with
exceptional accuracy and most importantly, the ability to determine aircraft
position and provide alerts.
 Not only does RNP offer safety benefits with precision and accuracy, it
reduces the cost of inefficiencies such as non-precision and circling
approaches (saving fuel and time).
 RNP capability of the aircraft is a major component in determining the
separation criteria.
 A critical component of RNP is the ability of the aircraft navigation system
to monitor its achieved navigation performance, and to identify for the pilot
whether the operational requirement is, or is not being met during an
operation.
 RNP Operations.
 1. RNP Levels: It applicable to a selected airspace, route, or procedure.
 ICAO has defined RNP values for the four typical navigation phases of
flight: oceanic, en route, terminal, and approach.
 RNP Level or Type is a value typically expressed as a distance in nautical
miles from the intended centerline of a procedure, route, or path.
RNP Level (NM) Typical application
0.3 – 1.0 RNP Approach segment
1 Terminal & En route
2 En route segment
 The FAA and ICAO member states have led initiatives in implementing
the RNP concept to oceanic operations.

RNP Level Typical application

4 Projected for oceanic area where 30 NM horizontal
separation is applied
10 Oceanic area where 50 NM lateral separation is applied
 Use of Suitable Area Navigation (RNAV) Systems on Conventional
Procedures and Routes
 1. when a VOR, DME, NDB, TACAN is out of service if equipped with
RNAV system, a pilot can navigate. This is referred as Substitute means
of navigation.
 2. when a VOR, DME, NDB, TACAN is operational and equipped with
RNAV system, a pilot may fly a procedure or route based on operational
VOR using RNAV equipment but not monitor the VOR. This is referred
as alternate means of navigation.
 Vertical separation
 Vertical separation is obtained by requiring aircraft using prescribed altimeter setting
procedures to operate at different levels expressed in terms of flight levels or altitudes.
 Vertical separation minimum
 Guidance material relating to vertical separation is contained on a nominal 300 m (1 000
ft) below FL 290 and a nominal 600 m (2 000 ft) at or above this level.
 Assignment of cruising levels for controlled flights:
 Level at which the aircraft will enter the next control area, It is the responsibility of the
accepting ATC unit to issue clearance for further climb as appropriate.
 When relevant aircraft will be advised to request en-route any cruising level changes
desired.
 Aircraft authorized to employ cruise climb techniques shall be cleared to operate between
two levels or above a level.
 If it is necessary to change the cruising level of an aircraft operating along an established
ATS route be effected within controlled airspace.
 When an aircraft has been cleared into a control area at a cruising level, the ATC unit
responsible for the area should issue a revised clearance to the aircraft even though the
pilot has not requested the necessary cruising level change.
 An aircraft may be cleared to change cruising level at a specified time, place or
rate.
 At cruising levels of aircraft flying to the same destination have priority over other
aircraft requesting that cruising level.
 When two or more aircraft are at the same cruising level, the preceding aircraft
shall normally have priority.
 In the case of cruise climb, the range of levels, to be assigned to controlled flights
shall be selected from those allocated to IFR flights.
 An aircraft may be cleared to a level previously occupied by another aircraft after
the latter has reported vacating it, except when:
 Severe turbulence is known to exist;
 The higher aircraft is effecting a cruise climb; or
 The difference in aircraft performance is such that less than the applicable separation
minimum.
 In these cases such clearance shall be withheld until the aircraft vacating the level
has reported at or passing another level separated by the required minimum.
 Pilots in direct communication with each other may, with their concurrence, be
instructed to maintain a specified separation between aircraft during climb or
descent.
 Horizontal separation
 An exact reporting point is a position established by a navigational facility which
is:
 A) Overhead a VOR
 B) Overhead an NDB
 C) A position which has been notified as a reporting point and which is
established by the intersection of VOR radials.
 D) By the intersection of a VOR radial and a bearing from a NDB.
 Lateral Separation:
 Lateral separation shall be applied so that the distance between aircraft is never
less than a specified amount.
 It is achieved by requiring aircraft to fly on different tracks or in different
geographical locations by the use of navigation or area navigation (RNAV)
equipment.
 Separation is to be checked by obtaining simultaneous DME readings from
aircraft at intervals of not more than 10 minutes.
 LATERAL SEPARATION CRITERIA AND MINIMA
 By requiring aircraft to fly on specified tracks which are separated by a minimum amount
appropriate to the navigation aid or method employed.
 VOR: both aircraft are established on radials diverging by at least 15 degrees and at least
one aircraft is at a distance of 28 km (15 NM)
 Dead reckoning (DR): both aircraft are established on tracks diverging by at least 45
degrees and at least one aircraft is at a distance of 28 km (15 NM) or more from the point
of intersection of the tracks.
 RNAV operations: both aircraft are established on tracks which diverge by at least 15
degrees.
 The protected airspace associated with the track of one aircraft does not overlap with the
protected airspace associated with the track of the other aircraft.
 This is determined by applying the angular difference between two tracks and the
appropriate protected airspace value.
 The derived value is expressed as a distance from the intersection of the two tracks at
which lateral separation exists.
 The lateral separation points are calculated by the formula:
 ℓ = Sy / sin θ
 Sy = the lateral distance between the tracks equal to the lateral separation minimum;
 ℓ = the distance of the lateral separation point from the intersection; and θ = the angle
between tracks.
 Longitudinal separation
 Longitudinal separation shall be applied so that the spacing between the estimated
positions of the aircraft being separated is never less than a prescribed minimum.
 Longitudinal separation between aircraft following the same or diverging tracks
may be maintained by application of speed control.
 In applying a time- or distance-based longitudinal separation minimum between
aircraft following the same track, the separation minimum is applicable for a
higher airspeed than the preceding aircraft.
 Longitudinal separation may be established by requiring aircraft to depart at a
specified time, to arrive over a geographical location at a specified time.
 For the purpose of application of longitudinal separation,
 Same track
 Same direction tracks and intersecting tracks or portions, the angular difference of
which is less than 45 degrees or more than 315 degrees, and whose protected
airspaces overlap.
 Reciprocal tracks
 Opposite tracks and intersecting tracks or portions, the angular difference of
which is more than 135 degrees but less than 225 degrees, and whose protected
airspaces overlap.
 Crossing tracks
 Intersecting tracks or portions thereof other than those specified in a) and b)
above.
 Longitudinal
Time-based separation applied may beBased
Separation based on position
On Time information by Controller–
pilot Data Link Communications
 Aircraft flying on the same track:
 A) Aircraft that have departed from the same aerodrome; or
 B) En-route aircraft that have reported over the same exact significant point; or
 C) Between departing and en-route aircraft after the en-route aircraft has reported
over a fix that is so located in relation to the departure point as to ensure that five-
minute separation.
 Same Track - Climbing And Descending:
 When an aircraft pass through the level of another aircraft on the same
track, the following minimum longitudinal separation shall be provided.
 To facilitate application of the procedure a climbing aircraft to a safe level
below the higher aircraft or a descending aircraft may be cleared to a safe
level above the lower aircraft
 During en-route, the level change is commenced within 10 min of the
second aircraft has reported over an reporting point, the minimum
separation to be maintained between the aircraft is 5 mins.
 During en-route, the level change is commenced before both the
aircrafts reaches the reporting point and the minimum separation to
be maintained is 10 mins b/w the aircraft.
 Crossing Track - Same Level Or
Climbing And Descending
 Where lateral separation is not
provided, vertical separation shall
be provided:
 a) For at least 10 minutes before the
second aircraft estimates the
crossing point; and
 b) For at least 10 minutes after the
first aircraft past the crossing point.
 Reciprocal track
 Where lateral separation is not
provided, vertical separation shall
be provided:
 a) For at least 10 minutes before
the crossing time; and
 b) For at least 10 minutes after the
time the aircraft are estimated to
pass, or are estimated to have
passed.
 This can be determined by both
aircraft have reported as having
crossed the same en-route
navigation facility.
Longitudinal Separation Based on
Distance
 Separation shall be established by maintaining not less than specified distance(s)
between aircraft positions by reference to DME in conjunction with other
appropriate navigation aids.
 Direct controller-pilot communication shall be maintained while such separation
is used.
 The term on track is used in longitudinal separation minima using DME, it
means that the aircraft is flying either directly inbound to or directly outbound
from the station.
 Separation is to be checked by obtaining simultaneous DME readings from
aircraft at frequent intervals to ensure that the minimum separation is established
 Same Track - Same Level
 The distance between two aircraft shall be 20 NM, provided:
 Each aircraft utilises, (i) the same on-track DME stations, (ii) An on track DME
station and a collocated common point when one aircraft is utilising DME and
the other is utilizing GNSS, (iii) The same common point when both aircraft are
utilising GNSS.
 The distance b/w two aircraft shall be 10 NM provided when aircraft
maintains a true airspeed of 20 knots or more than the succeeding aircraft.
 Same Track - Climbing And Descending
 The distance between two aircraft shall be 10 NM while vertical separation
does not exist, provided:
 A) Each aircraft utilises;
 (i) The same on-track DME stations;, when both aircraft are utilising DME, or
 ii) An on track DME station and a collocated common point when one aircraft
is utilising DME and the other is utilising GNSS, or
 iii) The same common point when both aircraft are utilising GNSS.
 B) One aircraft maintains a level while vertical separation does not exist.
 C) Separation is established by obtaining simultaneous DME and/ or GNSS
readings from the aircraft.
 Crossing Track - Same Level or
Climbing and Descending
 The distance between two aircraft shall
be 10 NM, provided:
 The leading aircraft maintains a true
airspeed of 20kts or more faster than the
succeeding aircraft.
 Each aircraft utilises the same on-track
DME and/or collocated common point
or same common point.
 The relative angle between the tracks is
less than 90 degrees.
 Reciprocal Track
 Separation is established when;
 a) Each aircraft utilises the same on-
track DME and/or collocated
common point or same common
point.
 b) It has been positively established
that the aircraft have passed each
other.
 c) Are at least 10 NM apart.
 There is no longitudinal distance
separation for reciprocal tracks
before both aircraft have crossed.
 ATC Clearance
 When flying under Instrument Flight Rules in controlled airspace, you must always have a
clearance.
 As an instrument pilot flying in Class G airspace, you may do without a clearance.
 ATC assigned clearance for the following phases of flight:
 Takeoff and Departure
 Enroute
 Arrival
 Approach
 1. Takeoff and Departure:
 Upon requesting your clearance, pilot deliver with a rapidfire clearance with the following
elements:
 C - Clearance limit
 R - Route
 A - Altitude
 F - Frequency (departure)
 T - Transponder code
 It’s a standard practice to read the elements to the ATC and ATC effect a proper readback.
 Two types of departure procedures:
 1. Obstacle Departure Procedures (ODP) - developed to assist pilots in obstruction avoidance
 2. Standard Instrument Departure (SID) - developed to communicate ATC clearances
 Obstacle Departure Procedures (ODP):
 Textual ODPs only issued by ATC controllers when required for traffic.
 If they are not issued by ATC, text ODPs are at pilot's option to fly or not fly.
 Pilot should enter "will depart [airport] [runway] via textual ODP" in remarks of
flight plan.
 All ODP procedures listed in front of chart booklets under heading Takeoff
Minimums and Obstacle Departure Procs.
 They are listed in alphabetical order by city and state.
 Pilots do not need an ATC clearance to use an ODP and they are responsible for
determining if the departure airport has this type of procedure.
 Based on the performance of the aircraft and the requirements of the ODP, the pilot
may have to depart at higher climb rate or in opposite direction.
 Fuel burn should also be a consideration.
 Standard Instrument Departure (SID):
 SIDs are an ATC requested and developed departure route.
 Primary goal is to reduce ATC/pilot workload while providing seamless transitions
to the en route structure.
 If you cannot comply with a SID, or if you do not have the charts or text
descriptions, state "NO SIDs" in remarks section.
 ATC will instead will clear you via filed route to the extent possible or via a
Preferential Departure Route (PDR).
 Charted transition routes allow pilots to a location in the en route structure.
 ATC can assign SIDs or radar vectors as necessary for traffic management and
convenience.
 To fly a SID, pilot must receive a clearance that includes a SID, and must have at
least text description of the SID in the possession.
 It is the responsibility of Pilot in command to accept or reject SID based on:
 1. Ability to comply with the required performance
 2. Possession of at least text description
 3. Personal understanding of SID in its entirety
 If you cannot comply with climb gradient in SID, you should not accept
clearance for that SID.
 If you cannot maintain standard climb gradient specified in ODP you must wait
until you can depart under Visual Meteorological Condition (VMC).
 2. Enroute:
 The enroute phase is defined as the segment of flight from the termination point of a
departure procedure to the origination point of an arrival procedure.
 Altitude:
 0o-179o - odd thousand altitude
 180o-359o - even thousand altitude
 Controller can give you arbitrary altitudes
 Preferred Routes:
 Preferred IFR routes beginning or ending with a fix indicate that pilots may be routed to or
from these fixes via a standard instrument departure (SID) or standard terminal arrival
route (STAR).
 Tower Enroute Control (TEC) allows flight planning between city pairs while remaining
within approach control airspace. Also called "tower-to-tower“.
 Obstacle Clearance and Altitudes:
 MEA - Minimum Enroute Altitude - Lowest published altitude between radio fixes that
assures acceptable navigational signal and obstacle clearance.
 Pilots may operate an aircraft below MEA down to, but not below, the MOCA, only when
within 22nm of the VOR.
 MOCA - Minimum Obstruction Clearance Altitude - lowest published altitude between
fixes that meets obstacle clearance for entire route of segment.
 Assures acceptable navigational signal only within 22 nm of VOR.
 MVA - Minimum Vectoring Altitudes - established for use by ATC when radar ATC is
exercised. MVA provides 1000/2000 ft clearance. (mountains).
 MRA - Minimum Reception Altitude - minimum altitude at which navigational signals can be
received for a route.
 MAA - Maximum Authorized Altitude - published altitude representing maximum usable
altitude or flight level for an airspace structure or route segment.

 3. Arrival:
 Term "cruise" may be used instead of "maintain" to assign a block of airspace to an aircraft.
 The block extends from the minimum IFR altitude up to and including the altitude that is
specified in the cruise clearance.
 Allowed to climb or descend within the block at own discretion.
 However, once you start a descent and verbally report leaving an altitude in the block to ATC,
you may not return to that altitude w/o additional clearance.
 ATC may ask you to descend and maintain a specific altitude.
 Descend at optimum rate for your aircraft until 1000 feet above assigned altitude, then descend
at a rate between 500-1500 feet per min.
 Second type of clearance allows you to descend "at pilot's discretion" - you may begin when
you choose at any rate you choose.
 Arriving aircraft usually are vectored to intercept the final approach at least 2nm outside the
approach gate.
 Standard Terminal Arrival Routes (STARs):
 Principal difference between SIDS or departure procedures (DPs) and STARs
is that departure procedures start at the airport pavement and connect to the en
route structure.
 STARs on the other hand, start at the en route structure but don't make it
down to the pavement; they end at a fix designated by ATC bcoz STARs serve
multiple airports.
 STARs provide transition from en route structure to an approach gate,
approach fix or arrival waypoint in the terminal area and they usually
terminate with an instrument or visual approach procedures.
 Pilot may accept a STAR within a clearance or may file for one in the flight
plan.
 ATC can assign a STAR even if the pilot have not requested one.
 If pilot don't want to use a STAR, write "No STAR" in remarks. And also can
refuse a STAR given verbally by ATC.
 Pilot are not authorized to leave the last assigned altitude unless specifically
cleared to do so.
 4. Approach:
 After cleared for an approach, aircraft can descend from the last assigned
arrival altitude.
 The minimum approach altitude maintained is 600 feet ceiling and 2 mile
visibility and 800 feet ceiling and 2 mile visibility.
 Approach Categories:
 Aircraft approach categories are based on 1.3 times Stall speed.
 Category Speed
A 90 KIAS (Knots Indicated Air Speed)
B 91-120 KIAS
C 121-140 KIAS
D 141-165 KIAS
E > 166 KIAS
 Except category A the instead of minimum approach altitude the alternate
minimum to be maintained as per the chart indicated.
 Although a faster approach may require higher category minimums to be used,
an airplane cannot be flown to the minimums of a slower approach category.
 Circling Approaches:
 Circling only procedures designed for one of two reason:
 1. Final approach course alignment with runway centerline exeeds 30°
 2. Descent gradient is greater than 400 feet per nautical mile.
 Minimum Safe Altitude (MSAs) provide 1000 feet clearance but not necessarily
navigational signal coverage.
 If going into an airport without a tower, a flight crew will occasionally be given the
choice of any available Instrument Approach Procedure (IAP) at field.
 In this case, pilot must choose an appropriate approach based on weather, aircraft
performance, direction of arrival, etc.
 Course Reversals:
 During a procedure turn, the maximum speed is 200 KIAS.
 When "No PT" depicted, a procedure turn is prohibited. If pilot is uncertain whether
ATC intends for a procedure turn to be flown, request clarification.
 A minimum of 1,000 ft obstacle clearance provided in procedure turn primary area.
 If visual contact with ground made before the approach is completed, the pilot
receives approval for a contact approach, is cleared for a visual approach, or cancels
the IFR flightplan.
 Requesting a contact approach may be advantageous since it requires less time than
the published IAP.
 Visual Approach:
 A visual approach is NOT an instrument approach procedure.
 Pilot or controller can initiate a visual approach.
 Controller must verify that pilots have the airport or preceding aircraft that
they are to follow in sight.
 Pilot assumes responsibility for their own separation and wake turbulence
avoidance.
 Pilots must remain clear of clouds at all times.
 Contact Approach:
 A contact approach can NOT be initiated by ATC. Reported ground visibility
must be at least 1 mile, and pilots must be able to remain clear of clouds.
 Contact approaches allow pilots to retain an IFR clearance, and provide
separation from IFR and Special VFR (1000 ceiling feet – 3 mile visibility if
the reported weather is less) traffic.
 Contact approach may be approved if airport has weather reporting and
current report is 1 mile visibility or more.
 For a contact approach, the pilot does not need to be able to see the airport,
but must have ground features in sight that pilot knows will lead to the airport.
 Position Points
 Position points that must be reported to ATC (air traffic control).
 They are designated on aeronautical charts by solid triangles or filed in a
flight plan as fixes selected to define direct routes.
 These points are geographical locations defined by navigation aids or fixes.
 The safety and effectiveness of traffic control depends to a large extent on
accurate position reporting.
 In order to provide the proper separation, ATC must be able to make
accurate estimates of the progress of every aircraft operating on an IFR
flight plan.
 Position Identification:
 When a position report is made passing a ADF or VOR radio facility, the
time reported should be the time at which the first complete reversal of the
"to/from" indicator is accomplished.
 If a position is given with respect to distance and direction from a reporting
point, the distance and direction should be computed as accurately as
possible.
 Position Reporting Points:
 Compulsory reporting points (CFR) require pilots to maintain a listening watch
on the appropriate frequency and to furnish position reports passing certain
reporting points.
 Reporting points are shown on enroute charts.
 Compulsory reporting points are a solid triangle.
 Non-compulsory reporting points are open triangles which are only required
when requested by ATC.
 Reporting Requirements:
 1. Flights along airways or routes:
 Required by all flights, regardless of altitude, including those operating in
accordance with an ATC clearance over each designated compulsory reporting
point along the route being flown.
 2. Flights in a Radar Environment:
 When informed by ATC that their aircraft are in "radar contact," pilots should
discontinue position reports over designated reporting points
 Pilot should resume normal positioning reporting when ATC advises “Radar
contact lost” or “Radar Service terminated”
 3. Flights in an Oceanic (Non-radar) Environment:
 Pilots must report over each point used in the flight plan to define the route of flight.
 For aircraft providing automatic position reporting via an Automatic Dependent
Surveillance-Contract (ADS-C) logon, pilots should discontinue voice position
reports.
 ATC will inform pilots that they are in “radar contact”:
 1. When their aircraft is initially identified in the ATC system,
 2. When radar identification is re-established after radar service has been terminated
or radar contact lost.
 This fact will not be repeated to the pilot when handed off to another controller. At
times, the aircraft identity will be confirmed by the receiving controller.
 Position Report Items:
 Identification
 Position
 Time
 Altitude or flight level
 Type of flight plan
 ETA and name of next reporting point
 The name of the next succeeding reporting point along the route of flight.
 Required Reports:
 The following reports are to be made to ATC facilities without a specific ATC
request:
 When vacating any previously assigned altitude or flight level.
 When unable to climb/descend at a rate of at least 500 feet per min.
 When approach has been missed request clearance for specific action to
alternate airports, another approach etc.
 Change in the average true airspeed (at cruising altitude) when it varies by 10
knots whichever is greater from that filed in the flight plan.
 The time and altitude of flight level upon reaching or leaving a holding fix.
 Any loss in controlled airspace, of any air/ground Navigation &
communications capability.
 Reports should include aircraft identification, equipment affected, degree to
which the capability to operate under IFR in the ATC system.
 Pilots encountering weather conditions which have not been forecast, are
expected to forward a report such weather to ATC.
 Any information regarding safety of flight.