CHAPTER 7.

PARTICLES IN THE
ATMOSPHERE
 PARTICLE POLLUTION

Particulate matter (also called particle pollution):

• The term for a mixture of solid particles and liquid
droplets found in the air.

Some particles, such as dust, dirt,

soot, or smoke, are large or dark
enough to be seen with the naked
eye.

Others are so small they can only

be detected using an electron
microscope.

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 TERMS PERTAINING TO PARTICLES

• Aerosol: Colloidal-sized atmospheric particles (<100 μm)

• Condensation aerosol: Formed from gas or vapors
• Dispersion aerosol: Formed from grinding bulk solids or
dispersion of liquids

Liquid particulate matter

• Fog: A thick cloud of tiny water droplets suspended in the
atmosphere

• Haze: Decreased visibility due to fine suspended particles

• Mists: Liquid particles

• Smoke: A visible suspension of carbon or other particles in air.

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From incomplete combustion of carbonaceous fuel
 PARTICLES IN THE ATMOSPHERE
Particles may be
• Inorganic (metal oxides, (NH4)2SO4)
• Organic (organic matter, hydrocabons)
• Biological (pollen, microorganisms)

Primary particles emitted directly to the atmosphere

• Desert sand • Sea salt • Pollen

Secondary particles formed from gases in the atmosphere

• H2SO4 • Ammonium salts • Photochemical smog

Particles undergo aging

• Gas exchange with air • Water loss or uptake
• Chemical reactions within particles

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 PARTICLES IN THE ATMOSPHERE

Sources of PM
• Some are emitted directly from a source, such as construction sites, unpaved roads, fields,
smokestacks or fires.
• Most particles form in the atmosphere as a result of complex reactions of chemicals such as
SO2 and NOx, which are pollutants emitted from power plants, industries and automobiles.

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 PHYSICAL BEHAVIOR OF ATMOSPHERIC
PARTICLES
Particles undergo aging

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 PHYSICAL PROCESSES FOR PARTICLE
FORMATION

Physical processes produce dispersion aerosols

• Generally larger, above 1 µm
• Less respirable and less harmful than condensation aerosols

Natural sources include:

• Sea spray • Windblown dust • Volcanic dust

Sources from human activities include

• Rock quarries
• Disturbed soil
• Dust from crop harvesting

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 PHYSICAL PROCESSES FOR PARTICLE
FORMATION
Bursting bubbles of seawater that
produce aerosol droplets from which
evaporation of water yields solid sea-
salt nuclei

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 CHEMICAL PROCESSES FOR PARTICLE
FORMATION
Chemical processes in the atmosphere convert large quantities of
atmospheric gases to particulate matter.

Particles from chemical processes

• Generally smaller, below 1 µm
• More respirable
• Higher organic contents
• Higher contents of toxic substances
• Toxic elements (arsenic) • Carcinogenic organics
Inorganic Particles Formation
Oxides: 3FeS2 + 8O2 → Fe3O4 + 6SO2
Sulfuric acid: 2SO2 + O2 + 2H2O → 2H2SO4
Salts: H2SO4(droplet) + 2NH3 → (NH4)2SO4(particulate)

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 SOURCES OF ELEMENTS IN INORGANIC PARTICLES
• Al, Fe, Ca, Si: Soil erosion, rock dust, coal combustion
• C: Incomplete combustion of carbonaceous fuels
• Na, Cl: Marine aerosols, organohalide polymer burning
• Sb, Se: Very volatile, combustion of oil, coal
• V: Combustion of residual petroleum

• Zn: In small particles, from combustion

• Pb: Combustion of fuels and wastes

containing lead

Fly Ash
• Residue from fossil fuel combustion

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 TOXIC METALS IN THE ATMOSPHERE

Mercury
• On particles • Hg(0) vapor • Hg(CH3)2

Lead
• Industrial sources
• Fossil fuel combustion
• Formerly as lead halides from leaded gasoline combustion

Beryllium
• High toxicity
• Lowest allowable limits of all elements
• Very limited uses

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 ORGANIC PARTICLES IN THE ATMOSPHERE

Hydrocarbons
• Long-chain alkanes cause few problems
• Aromatics more toxic

Organooxygen particles
• Atmospheric oxidation products of hydrocarbons
• Aldehydes • Ketones • Carboxylic acids

Organonitrogen compounds
such as acridine

Hydrocarbons and their derivatives are bound to

carbonaceous particles from diesel engine emissions
• Collected by filters and burned off

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 CHEMICAL PROCESSES FOR PARTICLE
FORMATION

Organic Particle Formation

Polycyclic Aromatic Hydrocarbon (PAH) Synthesis

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Polycyclic Aromatic Hydrocarbons and their Oxidation
Products in Organic Particulate Matter
Figure 9.6 Examples
of PAH compounds

Oxidation by atmospheric
chemical processes of

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benzo(a)pyrene PAH
 WATER AS PARTICULATE MATTER
Water droplets are widespread in the atmosphere
• In clouds • In fog

Water droplets in fog as carriers of pollutants

• Strong acid, especially H2SO4
• Corrosive salts, especially ammonium sulfate and nitrate

Most important effect is visibility reduction

Water droplets are important media for atmospheric chemical

processes
• Oxidation of SO2 to H2SO4
• Reactions involving HO•
• Transferred from air to water
• Produced chemically or photochemically in water

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ATMOSPHERIC CHEMICAL REACTIONS
INVOLVING PARTICLES

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 EFFECTS OF PARTICLES
Particles are one of six Criteria Pollutants designated by the U.S.
Environmental Protection Agency
• Others are sulfur dioxide, carbon monoxide, nitrogen dioxide,
ozone and lead

Most obvious effect is reduction and distortion of visibility

• Most pronounced in 0.1-1 µm range near wavelengths of visible
light

Health effects from respirable particles

• Especially those less than 2.5 µm, PM2.5

Elevated levels of particles in the 1952 London air pollution

episode
• 4000 more deaths than usual over 5 days

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 EFFECTS OF PARTICLES
Particulate matter enters our
respiratory (lung) system
through the nose and throat.

The larger particulate matter

(PM10) is eliminated through
coughing, sneezing and
swallowing.

PM2.5 can penetrate deep into

the lungs. It can travel all the
way to the alveoli, causing
lung and heart problems,
and delivering harmful
chemicals to the blood

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system.
EFFECTS OF PARTICLES
• Reduction and distortion of
visibility and weather

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 Climate and Health Effects

The brown cloud afflicts

• Affects visibility, weather, respiratory conditions
• Significant cooling effect
• Substantial contribution from cooking fires burning biomass

• https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=tG6yXSdNzSg

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• https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=qYYK-2sDN4U
 CONTROL OF PARTICLE EMISSIONS

Figure: baghouse with fabric filter

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https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=4mohzczShuk
 SCRUBBERS

Scrubbers are air pollution control

devices that use liquid to remove
particulate matter or gases from an
industrial exhaust or flue gas stream.
This atomized liquid (typically water)
entrains particles and pollutant gases in
order to effectively wash them out of
the gas flow.

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https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=kfyWD_7-42s