18.

Variation & Selection

The theory of evolution is based on the idea that
all species are related and gradually change over
time.
Evolution relies on genetic variation in a population.
 PART 1

VARIATION
 1. What is a variation?
• The term ‘variation’ refers to observable differences
within a species. Some of them are inherited (determined
by genes)and some are acquired (determined by the
environment).
 2. Types of variations
a/ Inherited (genetic) variations
• Those variations are determined by genes and
does not depend on environmental factors.
• Examples: eye color and skin color in humans, fur
color and fur length in animals
 b/ Acquired (environmental) variations
• There are variations that are not heritable, but
determined by factors in the environment.
• Example: A fair-skinned person may be able to change
the color of his or her skin by exposing it to sun.
 c/ Discontinuous variation

• Obvious, distinct categories for a trait,

determined by a gene.
• No intermediates between categories.
• Usually they are not affected by the
environment.
• They can be plotted on a bar graph or a
pie graph.
• Examples: Blood groups, tongue rolling, sex…
 d/ Continuous variations
• Show range of characteristics between two extremes
• Determined by genes and environmental factors
(food, disease, climate….).
• Can be plotted on a line graph.
• Examples: height, weight,
intelligence, leaf surface area
3. Mechanisms of the occurrence of
variations
• There are three main mechanisms by which genetic
variation may occur:
• Mutations – unpredictable change in a gene coding for a
specific trait.
• Meiosis – Via crossing over or abnormal cell division with
change in the number of chromosomes.
• Sexual reproduction – The combination of genetic
material from two parental organisms creates new gene
combinations in offspring.
a/ Gene mutation

A gene mutation is a
change in the nucleotide
sequence of a section of
DNA coding for a specific
trait.
New traits are formed by
mutation
b/ Chromosomal mutations during meiosis

Crossing Over
Crossing over involves
the exchange of
segments of DNA
between homologous
chromosomes during
meiosis.
b/ Chromosomal mutations during meiosis

Abnormal number of
chromosomes
During this process, a pair of
chromosomes doesn’t
separate evenly, which
results in one of the new
cells having an extra
chromosome.
 c/ Sexual reproduction and variations

• The fusion of two

haploid gametes results
in the formation of a
diploid zygote
• Random fertilization by
egg and sperm will
always generate
different zygotes
 PART 2

ADAPTATION
 1. What’s an adaptation?

• A structure or behavior that helps an organism survive

in a particular environment.
In order to survive and reproduce:
• Plants need: light, carbon dioxide, water, oxygen,
nutrients
• Animals need: food, water, oxygen
 2. Types of adaptations in animals

а/ Behavioral adaptation – Actions of an organism that

enable them to survive in their environment (e.g. bears
hibernate in winter).
b/ Structural adaptation – Physical features of an
organism that enable them to survive in their environment
(e.g. thick layer of fat under skin in polar bears).
c/ Physiological adaptation – Internal features of
an organism that enable them to survive in their
environment (e.g. snakes produce venom).
 burying food for
winter

swimming in
schools calls or howls
or cries

Which type of adaptation?

Structural - Behavioral - Physiological

spines on a prehensile tail
hedgehog on a spider
thick fur on monkey
an arctic fox
Which type of adaptation?

Behavioral - Structural - Physiological

 pupils change
sweating to cool size to match the
you adrenaline for light
speedy escape

Which type of adaptation?

Behavioral - Structural - Physiological

3. Plant Adaptations for different biomes
a/ Xerophytes

Xerophytes are plant living in environments with lack

of water. Their adaptations are:
• Small leaves, needles, or spines.
• Thick waxy leaf coating holds in water.
• Long roots near the soils surface soak up rain water
quickly before it evaporates.
4. Plant Adaptations for different biomes
b/ Hydrophytes

Hydrophytes are plants adapted to live in water

environment. Their adaptations are:
• Flexible stems move with water currents.
• Floating seeds spread offspring.
• Air pockets in stems at the base of leaves
to help leaves float.
 PART 3

EVOLUTION
&
NATURAL SELECTION
 1. What is evolution?

• Evolution can be described as the change in

adaptive characteristics of a population over
time as a result of natural selection.
 2. Charles Darwin (1809 –1882)

The father of Evolutionary theory

Proposed a mechanism for evolution, natural

selection

Darwin went on a 5-year trip in 1831 around

the world on the ship Beagle
He made observations of organisms in South
America and the Galapagos Islands
Darwin’s Finches
 3. Darwin’s Hypothesis
• Darwin hypothesized that organisms had a common
ancestor, but had adapted to their different environments
and changed over time.

• He further proposed that only members if a species best

suited for their environment will survive and
reproduce.

• He called this Natural Selection

4.Key Ideas that led to Darwin’s Theory

Overproduction
Variation
Competition
Selection
 Key Ideas that led to Darwin’s Theory:
a/ Overproduction

 Each species produces more offspring

that can survive to adulthood.

Many of the offspring in each generation

fail to survive to reproductive age.
 Key Ideas that led to Darwin’s Theory
b/ Variation

• Populations show variation – individuals

are not identical. They differ in many
different traits.

• Adaptation: an inherited trait that

increases an organism’s chances of
survival.
 Key Ideas that led to Darwin’s Theory
b/ Competition
• Individuals compete for limited resources: food,
water, space, mates…
• Only organisms adapted to the environment survive
( survival; of the fittest).
 Key Ideas that led to Darwin’s Theory
4. Selection

• The individuals with the best traits will survive and have
the opportunity to pass on it’s traits to offspring.

• Individuals with traits that are not well suited to their

environment either die or leave few offspring.

• Evolution occurs when good traits build up in a population

over many generations and bad traits are eliminated by
the death of the individuals.
Examples of natural selection:
Peppered Moth

• Which moth will the bird catch?

 Examples of natural selection:
Antibiotic resistance in bacteria
• Penicillin does not allow bacteria form a cell wall, so
they stay open and burst. But some of them can mutate
and escaper the action of antibiotic. They will be able
to reproduce and form a huge population of antibiotic-
resistant bacteria.
 Examples of natural selection:
Sickle cell anemia in humans
• Sickle cell anemia is a dangerous genetic disease that
causes production of abnormal hemoglobin which does
not deliver oxygen to the body cells properly.
• Although it is harmful to people, the natural selection
does not remove it. The reason is that people
heterozygous for sickle cell anemia are resistant to
malaria, also dangerous disease in some parts of the
world.
• https://storymd.com/asset/KAMl9bnt7q-how-this-disease-changes-the-shape-of-your-cells-amber-m-yates
 5. Evidence for Evolution
a/ Common ancestor

If species evolved from a common ancestor,

then they should share common anatomical
(physical) traits
 5. Evidence for Evolution
b/ Homologous Body Structures

Different types of animals may have similar

body structure because of the common
ancestor.
 5. Evidence for Evolution
c/ Fossils

Similar fossils were

found in several
different geographic
locations and layers.
 5. Evidence for Evolution
d/ Embryo development

• Similarities early in
development in many
organisms.
 5. Evidence for Evolution
e/ Vestigial organs
• Structures or organs that may have been useful to
ancestors but, over time no longer have a useful
function.

 Whales (hind leg bones)  Humans (tailbone, appendix)

 6. Selective breeding (artificial selection)
• Human can also bring changes in
living organisms by selecting
certain individuals with need
traits for breeding.
• If this selection is repeated over
many generations, the certain
characteristic will become
common in the population.