What is an earthquake?

• An earthquake is the vibration of Earth

produced by the rapid release of energy
• Energy radiates in all directions from its
source, the focus
• Energy moves like waves
• Causes huge destruction in terms of loss of
life and property
Generally, during an earthquake you first will
feel a swaying or small jerking motion, then a
slight pause, followed by a more intense rolling
or jerking motion. The duration of the shaking
you feel depends on the earthquake's
magnitude, your distance from the epicenter,
and the geology of the ground under your feet.
• For minor earthquakes, ground shaking usually lasts
only a few seconds.
• Strong shaking from a major earthquake usually
lasts less than one minute. For example, shaking in the
1989 magnitude 7.1 Loma Prieta (San Francisco)
earthquake lasted 15 seconds;
• For the 1906 magnitude 8.3 San Francisco
earthquake it lasted about 40 seconds.
• Shaking for the 1964 magnitude 9.2 Alaska
earthquake, however, lasted three minutes.
Aftershocks are smaller earthquakes which
occur in the same general area during the days
to years following a larger event or
"mainshock". As a general rule, aftershocks
represent minor readjustments along the
portion of a fault that slipped at the time of the
main shock. The frequency of these
aftershocks decreases with time.
The earthquake that caused the most
destruction in history occurred in the Shansi
province of China on January 23,1556. An
estimated 830,000 people were killed.

The second most destructive earthquake also

occurred in China--in July, 1976--and killed
255,000 people.
 TYPES OF EARTHQUAKES

1) Tectonic Earthquake
2) Volcanic Earthquake
3) Collapse Earthquake
4) Explosion Earthquake

CLASSIFICATION DISTANCE
1) Teleseismic Earthquake > 1000 km
2) Regional Earthquake > 500 km
3) Local Earthquake < 500 km
• Focus: the point at which the rock first
breaks and moves in an earthquake.
Below the surface.
• Epicenter: the point on the earth’s surface
directly above the focus.
 Seismic Waves
• The energy released in an earthquake travels
in waves. There are three types:
– Primary waves (P waves)
– Secondary waves (S waves)
– Surface waves (Love and Rayleigh)
 Primary Waves
• Called P waves
• Compression waves- squeeze and
stretch rock (Push and Pull)
• Can travel through any material- solid,
liquids, and gases
• Travel the fastest
 Secondary Waves
• S waves
• Side to Side movement.
• Can travel only through solid
material, not liquids or gases
• Travel a little more than half the speed
of P waves
 Surface Waves
• Seismic waves that travel along Earth’s
Surface
• When P and S waves reach the surface,
they make Surface waves
• There are two types,
types Love waves and
Rayleigh waves
• Cause lots of damage
 Seismic waves: forms
• P-waves: (primary or first)
– called compressional, or push-pull waves
– Propagate parallel to the direction in which the wave is moving
– Move through solids, liquids
– Fastest moving – reach seismic station first

• S-waves: (secondary)
– Called shear waves
– Propagate the movement perpendicular to the direction in which the
wave is moving
– Reach seismic station second

• Surface waves (L-waves or long waves).

– Complex motion
– Up-and-down and side-to-side
– Slowest
– Most damage to structures, buildings
NATURE OF EARTHQUAKES

1) Foreshocks

2) Main shock

3) Aftershocks

4) Earthquake Swarm

5) Normal Seismic activity

 EARTHQUAKE CLASSIFICATION

MAGNITUDE CLASSIFICATION
M ≥ 8.0 Great Earthquake
7.0 ≥ M < 8.0 Major / Large Earthquake
5.0 ≥ M < 7.0 Moderate Earthquake
3.0 ≥ M < 5.0 Small Earthquake
1.0 ≥ M < 3.0 Microearthquake
M < 1.0 Ultra Microearthquake

Hagiwara, 1964
• Earthquake mechanism

– Slip starts at the weakest point (the focus)

– Earthquakes occur as the deformed rock
“springs back” to its original shape (elastic
rebound)
– The motion moves neighboring rocks
– And so on.
– DEMO – elastic rebound
 Where do earthquakes occur:
1) Most earthquakes occur along the edge
of the oceanic and continental plate

2) Along faults: normal, reverse, transform

Why do Earthquakes happen?

•Plate Motion
 A fault is…
• A break in the lithosphere along which
movement has occurred. Most
earthquakes occur in this way.
– Friction between plates prevents them from
moving, so strain builds up. The rock
deforms. Eventually, the strain becomes
great enough that the rock moves, and
returns to normal shape. This causes an
earthquake (elastic rebound theory).
Earthquakes are caused by
sudden release of
accumulated strain energy
along Faults

Rocks on sides
of fault are
deformed by
tectonic forces

Rocks bend )))) )))

(((
and store
elastic energy
( (((

Frictional
resistance
Hands holding the
rocks together
Demo is overcome by
tectonic forces
4 Major Types of Fault
Dip-Slip
Normal Fault
Dip-Slip Reverse Fault
Strike - Slip Fault
Oblique - Slip Fault
How do earthquakes occur?

Elastic Rebound Theory is one

explanation of how earthquakes
take place.
Elastic Rebound Theory

•Pressure or stress, builds up in the

rock, much like a bending rubber
eraser in your hands.

•You can break a rubber eraser if the

pressure or stress you apply to it
exceeds the natural strength of the
rubber.
Elastic Rebound Theory
•There are two important concepts you should be
aware of. Stress in earth sciences refers to the
pressure the rock experiences and strain is the
actual damage or resultant deformation that we
can measure.
•While the pressure builds up in the rock the
rock DOES deform or strain. However, it does so
elastically. That is if you release the rock from
under stress it will BOUNCE back without any
signs of damage. Normal rocks are usually only
able to take a small (1-2%) of elastic strain.
Stretching or thinning beyond 1-2% can cause
permanent damage.
Elastic Rebound Theory
•When the rock breaks or ruptures some of the
energy goes into breaking the rock and a lot of it
goes into moving the surround rocks.

•The rupture itself may remain buried, invisible

underground (a blind fault). A rupture may or may
not reach the surface.

•After the stress or pressure is release the rock

seals and again starts to accumulate stress.
Size of an Earthquake

An earthquake size can be

determined qualitatively or
quantitatively and there is an
equivalence between the two types
of scales.
Size of an Earthquake

(1) The Modified Mercalli Intensity scale

describes the perceived intensity and
damage, in 12 degrees, of the shaking
and is useful when there are no
seismographs, as in historical
earthquakes.
(2) Damage depends on whether there
are people to witness the earthquake
effect and on local conditions.
Size of an Earthquake

The quantitative measure of the strength of

an earthquake is the moment magnitude.

Moment magnitude is proportional to the

logarithm of the area faulted and seismic
energy released during the rupture.

It can be measured directly from the

seismograms.
 Where Do Earthquakes Occur
~80% of all earthquakes occur in the circum-Pacific belt ( ring of
fire)
– most of these result from convergent margin activity
– ~15% occur in the Mediterranean-Asiatic belt
– remaining 5% occur in the interiors of plates and on
spreading ridge centers
– more than 150,000 quakes strong enough to be felt are
recorded each year
Earthquakes Scenario of the world

Distribution
 Distribution

Earthquakes are not randomly distributed around the earth, rather they are located in distinct zones
which can be related to the margins of tectonic plates on the Earth’s surface. Figure shows the
distribution of areas of most frequent earthquake activity. The active plate boundaries are
superimposed on this map.
Earthquakes predominantly occur in two places (1) near convergent plate margins and (2)
at divergent plate margins.
Global contribution Earthquake disasters (1980 – 2005)
Indian scenario of Earthquake
• Earthquake: India is having a high risk towards
Earthquakes. More than 58 per cent of India’s land
area is under threat of moderate to severe seismic
hazard.
• During the last 20 years, India has experienced
10 major earthquakes that have resulted in
more than 35,000 deaths.
• Of the earthquake-prone areas, 12% is prone to
very severe earthquakes, 18% to severe
earthquakes and 25% to damageable
earthquakes.
• The biggest quakes occur in the Andaman and
Nicobar Islands, Kutch, Himachal and the North-
East. The Himalayan regions are particularly
prone to earthquakes.
 MAJOR DISASTERS IN INDIA : 1990 - 2005
YEAR PLACES & DISASTER LOSS OF LIVES LOSS OF PROPERTY
(APPROX) ( Rs Crore) (APPROX)
1991 Uttarkashi Earthquake 2000 2000

1993 Latur Earthquake 9500 6000

1997 Jabalpur Earthquake 200 5000
1999 Chamoli Earthquake 2000 2000
1999 Orissa S Cyclone 9887 10000
2001 Bhuj Earthquake 14000 13400
2004 SE India Tsunami 15000 10000
2004 Assam & Bihar Floods 700 5000
2005 J&K Avalanche 350 100
2005 Mah, Guj, HP, Floods 1569 10300
Karnataka, T’Nadu
2005 J&K Earthquakes 1336 1000
Total Losses of Major Disasters only 56542 64800
 Zone Magnitude
Zone V Very High Risk
Quakes of
Magnitude 8 and
greater
Zone IV High Risk
Quakes upto
Magnitude 7.9
Zone III Moderate Risk
Quakes upto
Magnitude 6.9
Zone II Seismic
Disturbances upto
Magnitude 4.9

Source: IS 1893 (Part 1) : 2002 (BIS)

 Him

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Right
Plate Boundaries of the India Plate
Forecast for future earthquakes in the seismic Gaps of Himalaya

K
as
hm
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G
ap

Ce
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G
ap Assam Ga
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A seismic gap is a segment of an active fault known to produce

significant earthquakes that has not slipped in an unusually long time
 Major
Earthquakes
Map of India
Thank You For Your Patience