College of Electrical & Mechanical Engineering

Mechanical Engineering Department

Manufacturing Processes – MEng3108

Chapter 2: Metal Casting Processes

By: Netsanet D.
March, 2023
1
Introduction to Metal Casting
• Casting is a process in which molten metal flows by
gravity or other force into a mold where it solidifies
in the shape of the mold cavity.
• The term casting is also applied to the part that is
made by this process.
• It is one of the oldest shaping processes, dating back
6000 years.
• The principle of casting seems simple: melt the
metal, pour it into a mold, and let it cool and
solidify; yet there are many factors and variables
that must be considered in order to accomplish a
successful casting operation.
Introduction to Metal Casting
• Casting is one of the oldest shaping processes,
dating back 6000 years.
 Cast automobile parts

Inlet and exhaust manifold

Pipe fittings

Cover plate

Process - Die Casting

 Cast automobile parts
Cover plate

Bracket

Flanges

Pulleys

Process - Die Casting

 Pulleys
Fittings

Small parts

Process - Die Casting

Casting Attributes
• Castings offer cost and performance advantages
because of their shape.
• The composition, structure and properties can be
tailored for a specific end product.
• Casting can produce parts with a complicated
geometry.
• Casting can produce parts from metals that are hard
to machine or form.
• Casting can produce parts with internal cavities.
 Casting Disadvantages
• Castings have lower strength than formed parts.
• Castings generally exhibit non uniform properties.
Example: Wrought metals are usually anisotropic-
stronger and tougher in one direction than in another.
• Castings typically have a poor surface finish and poor
dimensional accuracy (except for precision casting
methods).
Steps in Casting
• Pattern and Mold making
• Melting and Pouring
• Solidification and Cooling
• Removal, Cleaning, Finishing and Inspection
Classification of Casting Processes
• Based on the type of the mold used, casting processes
can be classified into two
1. Expendable mold: destroyed when the molten
metal solidifies to remove the casting.
Mold made of materials like sand, plaster and other
refractory materials.
eg. Sand casting, shell molding, investment casting
2. Permanent mold: used over and over to produce
many castings.
Mold made of metallic and ceramic materials.
eg. die casting, squeeze casting
Expendable Mold Casting Processes
Sand Casting
• It is an expendable – mold casting process.
• In expendable mold casting, the mold is destroyed to
remove the casting and a new mold is required for
each new casting.
The basic production steps in sand casting
Forms of Mold
Open and Closed Mold

(a) Open mold, simply a container in the shape of the desired part;
(b) Closed mold, in which the mold geometry is more complex
and requires a gating system (passageway)leading into the
cavity.
Sand Casting terminology
• The mold consists of two halves: cope and drag
• Cope is the upper half and drag is the bottom half.
• These two mold parts are contained in a box, called
flask.
• The two halves of the mold separate at the parting line.
• Core is used for making holes or hollow cavities inside
a casting.
Cores can be made of sand, metals, plaster and ceramic.
• The gating system is the channel, by which the molten
metal flows into the cavity from outside the mold.
• The gating system consists of a downsprue (sprue),
through which the metal enters a runner that leads
into the main cavity.
• At the top of the down sprue, a pouring cup is often
used to minimize splash and turbulence as the metal
flows into the downsprue.
• Riser is a reservoir designed to feed liquid metal to
the solidifying casting to compensate for shrinkage
during solidification.
• As the metal flows into the mold, the air that
previously occupied the cavity and the hot gases
formed by reactions of the molten metal, must be
evacuated so that the metal completely fills the empty
space.
• The cavity in the sand mold is formed by packing
sand around a pattern, and then removing the pattern.
• Patterns define the external shape of the cast part.
• If the casting is to have internal surfaces (eg. Hollow
parts or parts with holes), a core must be included in
the mold.
• Sand casting requires a pattern – a full sized model of
the part, enlarged to account for shrinkage and
machining allowances in the final casting.
• Wood, plastics and metals can be used to make
patterns.
• Wood is a common pattern material b/c it is easily
worked into shape. Disadvantages are:
 It tends to warp
 It is abraded by the sand being compacted around
it, thus limiting the number of times it can be
reused.
• Metal patterns are more expensive to make, but they
last much longer.
• The selection of pattern material depends on the total
quantity of castings to be made.
Patterns
• A pattern is a replica of the final product and is used
for preparing mold cavity.
• It is made of wood, metal, plastic or other material.
Pattern Design Consideration
• Pattern always made larger than final job.
Excess dimensions - Pattern Allowance
 Shrinkage allowance - contraction of casting
Liquid - pouring temp. to freezing temp.
Change of phase - Liquid to Solid
Solid casting - freezing temp. to room temp.
 Draft allowance - to withdraw pattern from mold
 Machining allowance - for final shape
 Pattern Geometry

• The choice of pattern depends on the configuration of

casting and number of casting required.

Draft in Pattern
• A core is a full scale model of the interior surface of
the part.
• The core is inserted into the mold cavity prior to
pouring, so that the molten metal will flow and
solidify between the mold cavity and the core to form
the castings external and internal surfaces.
• The core is made of sand, compacted into the desired
shape.
• Depending on the geometry of the part, the core may
or may not require supports to hold it in position in
the mold cavity during pouring.
• These supports, called chaplets, are made of a metal
with a higher melting temp. than the casting metal.
 Chaplets: To avoid Core
Shifting

(a) Core held in place in the mold cavity by chaplets, (b) possible
chaplet design, and (c) casting with internal cavity

• On pouring and solidification, the chaplets become

bonded into the casting.
• The portion of the chaplet protruding from the casting is
subsequently cut off.
Molds and mold making
• The typical foundry sand is a mixture of fresh and
recycled sand, which contains 90% silica (SiO2), 3%
water, and 7% clay.
• Other bonding agents can be used in place of clay,
including organic resins and inorganic binders (eg.
Sodium silicate and phosphate).
• Besides sand and binder, additives are sometimes
combined with the mixture to enhance properties such
as strength and permeability.
• The grain size and grain shape are very important as
they define the surface quality of casting and the major
mold parameters such as strength and permeability:
• Bigger grain size results in a worse surface finish.

• But Larger grain size ensures better permeability.

• Irregular grain shapes produce stronger mold.

• Quality of the sand mold is determined by its;
1. Strength: the molds ability to maintain its shape and
resist erosion caused by the flow of the molten
metal. It depends on grain shape and adhesive
qualities of the binder.
2. Permeability: the capacity of the mold to allow hot
air and gases from the casting operation to pass
through the voids in the sand.
3. Thermal stability: ability of the sand at the surface
of the mold cavity to resist cracking and buckling
upon contact with the molten metal.
4. Collapsibility: ability of the mold to give way and
allow the casting to shrink without cracking the
casting;
It also refers to the ability to remove the sand from
the casting during cleaning.
5. Reusability: can the sand from the broken mold be
reused to make other molds?
• Sand molds are classified as green sand, dry sand or
skin dried molds.
Melting and Pouring
• Several types of furnaces are available for melting
metals.
• Furnace selection depends on
 the type of metal,
 the maximum temperature required and
 the rate and the mode of molten metal delivery.
• Before pouring, provisions are made for the escape of
dissolved gases.
• The gating system should be designed to minimize the
turbulent flow and erosion of mold cavity.
• Molten metal is prevented from oxidation by covering
the molten metal with fluxes.
• Ladles which pour the molten metal from beneath the
surface are used.
• The two main consideration during pouring are the
pouring temp. and pouring rate.
• Fluidity of molten metal is more at higher temp. but it
results into more amount of dissolved gases and high
temp. also damage the mold walls and results into poor
surface quality of the casting.
• Fluidity: Capability of molten metal to fill mold cavities.
 Characteristics of molten metal eg. Viscosity
 Casting parameters eg. Mold material and design
The solidification process
• The properties of the casting significantly depends on the
solidification time/cooing rate.
• Shrinkage of casting: during cooling of solidified metal,
the metal should not be restrained by the mold material,
otherwise internal stresses may develop and form cracks
in casting.
• Proper care should be taken at the design stage of casting
so that shrinkage can occur without casting defects.

Pure metal
Mechanism of Solidification
• Pure metal solidifies at a constant temp. equal to its freezing
point, which same as its melting point.
• The change form liquid to solid does not occur all at once.
• The process of solidification starts with nucleation, the
formation of stable solid particles within the liquid metal.
• Nuclei of solid phase, generally a few hundred atom in size, start
appearing at a temperature below the freezing temp.
• The temp. around this goes down and is called supercooling or
undercooling.
• In pure metals supercooling is around 20% of the freezing temp.
• A nuclei, more than a certain critical size grows, and causes
solidification.
Removal, cleaning, finishing & inspection
• After the casting is removed from the mold;
 it is thoroughly cleaned and
 the excess material is removed using a portable
grinder.
Fettling process
• After the casting has solidified and been removed from the
mold, additional steps are usually required.
• These operations include
1. Trimming
2. Removing the core
3. Surface cleaning
4. Inspection (White light inspection, pressure test,
magnetic particle inspection, radiographic test, ultrasonic
inspection etc. are used)
5. Repair (if required) and
6. Heat treatment
• Steps through 1-5 are collectively referred to in foundry
work as “cleaning”.
Shell molding
• Is a casting process which uses an expendable mold
of a thin shell, typically 9mm, made of sand held
together by a thermosetting plastic resin.
Steps in Shell molding
1. A match plate or cope and drag metal pattern is
heated and placed over a box containing sand mixed
with thermosetting resin.
2. Box is inverted so that sand and resin fall onto the
hot pattern, causing a layer of the mixture to
partially cure on the surface to form a hard shell.
3. Box is repositioned so that loose, uncured particles
drop away.
4. Sand shell is heated in oven for several minutes to
complete curing.
5. Shell mold is stripped from the pattern.
6. Two halves of the shell mold are assembled,
supported by sand or metal shot in a box, and pouring
is accomplished.
7. The finished casting with sprue is removed.
Shell molding
Advantages of shell molding process
• The surface of the shell mold cavity is smoother than
a conventional green sand mold.
• This smoothness permits easier flow of the molten
metal during pouring and better surface finish on the
final casting.
• Good dimensional accuracy is achieved, with
tolerances of  0.25mm possible on small to medium
sized parts.
• Collapsibility of the mold is generally sufficient to
avoid tearing and cracking of the casting.
Disadvantages of shell molding
• More expensive metal pattern than the corresponding
pattern for green sand molding.
• This makes shell molding difficult to justify for small
quantities of parts.
• Shell molding can be mechanized for mass
production and is very economical for large
quantities.
• Parts produced by shell molding includes gears, valve
bodies, bushings and cam shafts.
Investment casting
• A pattern made of wax is coated with a refractory
material to make the mold, after which the wax is
melted away prior to pouring the molten metal.
• The term investment comes from the word “invest”
meaning “to cover completely”.
• This refers to the coating of the refractory material
around the wax pattern.
• It is a precision casting process, because it is capable
of making castings of high accuracy and intricate
detail.
• It is also known as the lost wax process, because the wax
pattern is lost from the mold prior to casting.
• Since the wax pattern is melted off after the refractory
mold is made, a separate pattern must be made for every
casting.
• In high production, several patterns are attached to a
sprue, also made of wax, to form a pattern tree.
• Complex machinery parts, blades and other components
for turbine engines, jewelry and dental fixtures can be
produced.
Steps in investment casting
1. Wax patterns are produced.
2. Several patterns are attached to a sprue to form a
pattern tree.
3. The pattern tree is coated with a thin layer of
refractory material.
4. A full mold is formed by covering the coated tree
with sufficient refractory material to make it rigid.
• Coating with refractory is usually accomplished by
dipping the pattern tree into a slurry of very fine
grained silica or other refractory (almost in powder
form) mixed with plaster to bond the mold into
shape.
• The small grain size of the refractory material provides
a smooth surface and captures the intricate details of
the wax pattern.
• The mold is allowed to air dry for about eight hours to
harden the binder.
5. The mold is held in an inverted position and heated to
melt the wax and permit it to drip out of the cavity.
6. The mild is preheated to a high temp., which ensures
that all contaminants are eliminated from the mold.
It also permits the liquid metal to flow more easily into
the detailed cavity. The molten metal is poured; it
solidifies.
7. The mold is broken away from the finished casting.
Parts are separated from the sprue.
Investment casting
Advantages of investment casting
• Parts of greater complexity and intricacy can be cast;
• Close dimensional control with tolerances of ±0.075mm;
• Good surface finish;
• The lost wax can be reused;
• Additional machining is not normally required;
• All types of metals, including steels, stainless steels, and
other high temperature alloys, can be investment cast.
Limitations of investment casting
• Relatively expensive process, b/c many steps are involved;
• Investment castings are normally small in size;
• Preferred for casting weight less than 5 kg, maximum
dimension less than 300 mm, Thickness is usually
Permanent Mold Casting Processes
• In permanent mold casting a metal mold constructed
of two sections that are designed for easy, precise
opening and closing is used.
• These molds are commonly made of steel or cast iron.
• The cavity, with gating system include, is machined
into the two halves to provide accurate dimensions
and good surface finish.
• Cores can be used in permanent molds to form
interior surfaces in the cast product.
• The cores can be made of metals but either their
shape must allow for removal from the casting, or
they must be mechanically collapsible to permit
removal.
• If withdrawal of a metal core would be difficult or
impossible, sand cores can be used, in which the casting
process is often referred to as semipermanent mold
casting.
Advantages of permanent mold
• Good surface finish.
• Close dimensional control.
• More rapid solidification caused by a metal mold results in
a finer grain structure, so stronger castings are produced.
Limitations of permanent mold
• Limited to metals of lower melting points.
• Used for simple part geometries compared to sand casting
because of the need to open the mold.
• Expense of mold.
Steps in permanent mold casting: (1) mold is preheated and
coated with lubricant for easier separation of the casting; (2)
cores (if used) are inserted and mold is closed; (3) molten metal
is poured into the mold; and (4) mold is open and finished part
removed. Finished part is shown in (5).
Casting Defects
• There are numerous opportunities in the casting
operation for different defects to appear in the cast
product.
• Some of them are common to all casting processes:
• Misruns: Casting solidifies before completely fill the
mold. Reasons are insufficient fluidity of the molten
metal, low pouring temperature, slow pouring or thin
cross section of casting.
• Cold shut: Two portions flow together but without
fusion between them. Causes are similar to those of a
misrun.
• Cold shots: When splattering occurs during pouring,
solid globules of metal are entrapped in the casting.
Proper gating system designs could avoid this defect.
• Shrinkage cavity: Voids resulting from shrinkage. The
problem can often be solved by proper riser design but
may require some changes in the part design as well.
• Microporosity: Network of small voids distributed
throughout the casting. The defect occurs more often
in alloys, because of the manner they solidify.
• Hot tearing: Cracks caused by low mold
collapsibility. They occur when the material is
restrained from contraction during solidification.
Proper mold design can solve the problem.
Some common defects in castings: (a) misrun, (b) cold shut,
(c) cold shot, (d) shrinkage cavity, (e) microporosity and
(f) hot tearing.
Defects in sand castings

Common defects in sand castings: (a) sand blow, (b) pin holes,
(c) sand wash, (d) scabs, (e) penetration, (f) mold shift, (g) core
shift, and (h) mold crack.
• Sand blow: a defect consisting of a balloon-shaped gas
cavity caused by release of mold gases during pouring.
• It occurs at or below the casting surface near the top of the
casting.
• Low permeability, poor venting, and high moisture content
of the sand mold are the usual causes.
• Pinholes: also caused by release of gases during pouring,
consist of many small gas cavities formed at or slightly
below the surface of the casting.
• Sand wash: an irregularity in the surface of the casting
that results from erosion of the sand mold during
pouring.
• The contour of the erosion is formed in the surface of
the final cast part.
• Scabs: rough areas on the surface of the casting due to
encrustations of sand and metal.
• Caused by portions of the mold surface flaking off during
solidification and imbedded in the casting surface.
• Penetration: a surface defect that occurs when the fluidity
of the liquid metal is high, and it penetrates into the sand
mold or sand core.
• Upon freezing, the casting surface consists of a mixture of
sand grains and metal.
• Harder packing of the sand mold helps to alleviate this
condition.
• Mold shift: a defect caused by a sidewise displacement of
the mold cope relative to the drag, the result of which is a
step in the cast product at the parting line.
• Core shift: is similar to mold shift, but it is the core that
is displaced, and the displacement is usually vertical.
• Core shift and mold shift are caused by buoyancy of the
molten metal.
• Mold crack: occurs when mold strength is insufficient,
and a crack develops, into which liquid metal can seep to
form a ‘‘fin’’ on the final casting.
Inspection Methods
1. Visual inspection: to detect obvious defects such as
misruns, cold shuts, and severe surface flaws;
2. Dimensional measurements to ensure that tolerances have
been met; and
3. Metallurgical, chemical, physical, and other tests
concerned with the inherent quality of the cast metal.
• Tests in category (3) include:
a) Pressure testing: to locate leaks in the casting;
b) Radiographic methods, magnetic particle tests, the use
of fluorescent penetrants and supersonic testing: to
detect either surface or internal defects in the casting;
and
c) Mechanical testing: to determine properties such as
tensile strength and hardness.
End of Chapter Two