FACULTY OF VETERINARY MEDICINE

DEPARTMENT OF INFECTIOUS PATHOLOGY , HTCFAO

“Parasitology:“Parasitic diseases of
farm animals” part

PRACTICAL 5. ANOPLOCEPHALIDS IN
RUMINANTS. BIRD’S CESTODES.

Assoc. professor Kostadin Kanchev, DVM, PhD

FAMILY ANOPLOCEPHALIDAE.

These are essentially tapeworms of horses

(Anoplocephala, Paranoplocephala) and ruminants
(Moniezia). The scolex has neither rostellum nor hooks
and the gravid segments are wider than they are long.
The intermediate stage is a cysticercoid present in
forage mites of the family Oribatidae.
FAMILY ANOPLOCEPHALIDAE.

Moniezia expansa
HOSTS.

Final hosts: Sheep, goats, occasionally cattle.

Intermediate hosts: Forage mites, mainly of the
family Oribatidae.
LOCATION IN HOST.

Predilection site: Small intestine.

MORPHOLOGY.

Description, gross: These are long tapeworms, 2 m or more in

length, which are unarmed, possessing prominent suckers.
Description, microscopic: Segments are broader than they are long
(up to 1.5 cm wide) and contain two sets of genital organs grossly
visible along the lateral margin of each segment. There is a row
of inter-proglottidal glands at the posterior border of each
segment, which may be used in species differentiation. In M.
expansa they extend along the full breadth of the segment. The
irregularly triangular eggs have a well defined pyriform apparatus
and vary from 55–75 μm in diameter.
Mature segments of Moniezia benedeni
Eggs of Moniezia sp. are often square or triangular, unlike the more
common round or oval shape of parasite eggs. The presence of the
embryo with its six hooks clearly identifies these structures as
tapeworm eggs. In this egg, four hooks are visible.
LIFE CYCLE.

Gravid proglottids or eggs are passed in the

faeces and on pasture where the oncospheres are
ingested by forage mites. The embryos migrate into the
body cavity of the mite where they develop to
cysticercoids in 1–4 months and infection of the final
host is by ingestion of infected mites during grazing.
The prepatent period is approximately 6 weeks, but the
adult worms appear to be short lived, patent infections
persisting for only 3 months.
Life cycle of Moniezia sp.
DIAGNOSIS.

This is based largely on the presence of gravid

proglottids in the faeces and the characteristic shape of
Moniezia eggs (triangular, M. expansa; quadrangular,
M. benedeni) that contain the oncosphere. The eggs of
M. benedeni are slightly larger than those of M.
expansa.
 Owners may be alarmed by the presence of Moniezia sp.
segments in the feces of their animals, although tapeworms
have little clinical significance. Tapeworm segments are seen
most often in the manure of young animals.
Moniezia sp. eggs and a strongylid egg in an alpaca fecal
sample.
Moniezia sp. in the intestine of a cow at necropsy.
FAMILY ANOPLOCEPHALIDAE.

Moniezia benedeni
HOSTS.

Final host: Cattle, sheep.

Intermediate hosts: Forage mites, mainly of the

family Oribatidae.
LOCATION IN HOST.

Predilection site: Small intestine.

 MORPHOLOGY.

Description, gross: These are long tapeworms, 2 metres or more,

which are unarmed, possessing prominent suckers.
Description, microscopic: Segments are broader than they are long
(up to 2.5 cm wide) and contain two sets of genital organs grossly
visible along the lateral margin of each segment. There is a row of
inter-proglottidal glands at the posterior border of each segment,
which may be used in species differentiation; in M. benedeni they
are confined to a short row close to the middle of the segment. The
irregularly quadrangular eggs have a well defined pyriform
apparatus and vary from 55–75 μm in diameter.
Proglottids of Moniezia benedeni.
LIFE CYCLE.

Mature proglottids or eggs are passed in the faeces and on to

pasture where the oncospheres are ingested by forage mites.
The embryos migrate into the body cavity of the mite where
they develop to cysticercoids in 1–4 months and infection of
the final host is by ingestion of infected mites during grazing.
The prepatent period is approximately 6 weeks, but the adult
worms appear to be short lived, patent infections persisting for
only 3 months.
DIAGNOSIS.

This is based largely on the presence of mature

proglottids in the faeces and the characteristic shape of
Moniezia eggs (triangular, M. expansa; quadrangular,
M. benedeni) that contain the oncosphere. The eggs of
M. benedeni are slightly larger than those of M.
expansa.
FAMILY THYSANOSOMIDAE.

Closely related to the Anoplocephalidae, this family

contains several tapeworms of veterinary importance
found mainly in sheep and other ruminants (Stilesia,
Thysanosoma, Thysaniezia and Avitellina).
The intermediate stage is a cysticercoid present in forage
mites of the family Oribatidae.
FAMILY THYSANOSOMIDAE.

Thysaniezia giardi
Synonym: Thysaniezia ovilla
HOSTS.

Final hosts: Cattle, sheep, goat, camel and wild

ruminants.
Intermediate hosts: Oribatid mites (Galuma,
Scheloribates) and psocids (bark lice, dust
lice).
LOCATION IN HOST.

Predilection site: Small intestine

MORPHOLOGY.

Description, gross: Adults reach 200 cm in length, varying in

width up to 12 mm.
Description, microscopic: The scolex is small, measuring up to 1
mm in diameter. Segments are short, bulge outwards giving the
margin of the worm an irregular appearance, and contain a single
set of genital organs, rarely two, with genital pores alternating
irregularly. Eggs are devoid of a pyriform apparatus and
found in groups of 10–15 in elongated paruterine organs (100
μm long), with a thick grey shell and a protruberance at one end.
MORPHOLOGY.
LIFE CYCLE.

Mature segments are passed in the faeces of the infected

host on to pasture, where forage mites ingest the
oncospheres. Cysticercoids develop within the orabatid
intermediate hosts and infection of the final host is by
ingestion of infected mites during grazing.
DIAGNOSIS.

The mature segments found in the faeces

are readily distinguishable from Moniezia sp.
 Packet of Thysaniezia eggs from a sheep. The eggs lack the pyriform
apparatus seen in Moniezia eggs. Hooks can be seen in some of the eggs.
The entire packet of eggs is 124 x 62 μm.
FAMILY THYSANOSOMIDAE.

Avitellina centripunctata
HOSTS.

Definitive hosts: Sheep, goat, camel and other

ruminants.
Intermediate hosts: Thought to be oribatid mites
or psocid lice.
LOCATION IN HOST.

Predilection site: Small intestine

MORPHOLOGY.

Description, gross: This tapeworm resembles Moniezia on gross

inspection except that the segmentation is so poorly marked that
it appears somewhat ribbon-like. It can reach 3 m in length by
about 4 mm in width and the posterior end is almost cylindrical
in appearance.
Description, microscopic: A single set of genital organs is present
with the pores alternating irregularly. Proglottids are short. Eggs
lack a pyriform apparatus and measure around 20–45 μm.
MORPHOLOGY.
LIFE CYCLE AND DIAGNOSIS.

The same as T. giardi.

FAMILY THYSANOSOMIDAE.

Stilesia globipunctata
HOSTS.

Definitive hosts: Sheep, cattle and other

ruminants
Intermediate hosts: Thought to be oribatid mites
and psocid lice.
LOCATION IN HOST.

Predilection site: Small intestine.

MORPHOLOGY.

Description, gross: Adults measure around 0.5 metres in

length by 3–4 mm wide.
Description, microscopic: A single set of genital organs
is present.
MORPHOLOGY.
LIFE CYCLE AND DIAGNOSIS.

The same as T. giardi.

TAPEWORMS OF POULTRY.

Tapeworms are a feature of poultry which are reared on pasture,

infection being acquired through ingestion of infected
intermediate hosts, such as beetles, earthworms, ants,
grasshoppers or flies.
The most important and pathogenic species is Davainea proglottina
which penetrates the duodenal mucosa and in young birds can
induce a necrotic haemorrhagic enteritis which can be fatal.
Raillientina echinobothrida is also pathogenic, inducing a
hyperplastic enteritis and multiple caseous nodules where the
scolex attaches to the wall of the intestine. Many other tapeworm
species produce only mild symptoms, unless infections are heavy,
when loss of productivity may be seen. Control depends on the
treatment of infected birds with a suitable anthelminthic and the
destruction or removal of intermediate hosts where possible.
FAMILY DAVAINEIDAE.

These are mainly parasites of birds (Davainea,

Raillietina, Cotugnia).
These tapeworms usually have rows of hooks on
both rostellum and suckers. The intermediate
stage is a cysticercoid.
FAMILY DAVAINEIDAE.

Davainea proglottina
HOSTS.

Final hosts: Chicken, turkey, pigeon and other

gallinaceous birds
Intermediate hosts: Gastropod molluscs such as
Agriolimax, Arion, Cepaea and Limax.
LOCATION IN HOST.

Predilection site: Small intestine, particularly the

duodenum.
MORPHOLOGY.

Description, gross: D. proglottina is a very small cestode up to 3–4

mm long, and unlike Amoebotaenia, usually possesses only four
to nine segments. Both the rostellum and suckers bear hooks.

Description, microscopic: The genital pores alternate regularly.

Eggs measure about 30–40 μm and are found singly within the
parenchymatous capsules in the gravid segment.
Davainea proglottina adult.
Avian tapeworm egg. Several embryonic hooks are clearly visible,
and this characteristic is very helpful in identification.
LIFE CYCLE.

Gravid proglottids are shed in faeces and eggs are

ingested by various gastropod molluscs, in which they
develop to the cysticercoid stage after about 3 weeks.
Following ingestion of the mollusc by the final host,
the cysticercoids develop into adult tapeworms in about
2 weeks.
LIFE CYCLE.
DIAGNOSIS.

This is best achieved at necropsy through

microscopic examination of mucosal scrapings
from the duodenum and anterior small intestine.
The tapeworm can easily be overlooked due to
its minute size.
FAMILY DAVAINEIDAE.

Raillientina cesticillus
Synonym: Skrjabinia cesticillus.
HOSTS.

Final hosts: Chicken, turkey, guinea fowl.

Intermediate hosts: Various genera of beetles,
including the families Carabidae, Scarabaeidae,
Tenebrionidae, and the meal beetles, Tribolium
spp.
LOCATION IN HOST.

Predilection site: Small intestine.

MORPHOLOGY.

Description, gross: A medium-size tapeworm reaching around 10–

14 cm in length, but often shorter.
Description, microscopic: The broad scolex is large and the
rostellum wide. The unarmed suckers are not prominent and the
rostellum is armed with several hundred small hammer-shaped
hooks arranged in a double row. The gravid proglottids contain
several, thin-walled egg capsules, each housing a single egg.
Eggs measure approximately 75 × 90 μm.
MORPHOLOGY.
LIFE CYCLE.

Gravid proglottids are passed in faeces and eggs are ingested

by various intermediate hosts. The embryo hatches from
the egg in the intestine and then changes into a cysticercoid
in the body cavity.

Following ingestion by the final host the activated

cysticercoid attaches to the mucosa of the anterior or mid
small intestine.

The prepatent period is around 2–3 weeks.

DIAGNOSIS.

This is best achieved at necropsy through

microscopic examination of mucosal
scrapings from the small intestine.
DIAGNOSIS.

Postmortem findings in raillietinosis.

FAMILY DAVAINEIDAE.

Raillietina echinobothrida
Common name: Nodular tapeworm.
HOSTS.

Final hosts: Chicken, turkey and other fowl.

Intermediate hosts: Ants of the genera Pheidole
and Tetramorium.
LOCATION IN HOST.

Predilection site: Small intestine

MORPHOLOGY.

Description, gross: Raillietina echinobothrida, which may be up to

25 cm in length, is similar in shape to R. tetragona. The suckers
are circular and the rostellum is well endowed with two rows of
hooks.
Description, microscopic: The gravid proglottids contain multiple
fibrous-walled egg capsules, each housing several eggs. Eggs
measure approximately 75 × 95 μm.
MORPHOLOGY.
LIFE CYCLE.

See R. cesticillus.
The prepatent period is around 3 weeks.
DIAGNOSIS.

R. echinobothrida is more pathogenic than either

R. cesticillus or R. tetragona. In heavy infections,
the embedded scolices of this parasite produce
large caseous nodules in the subserous and
muscular layers of the wall of the posterior small
intestine.
FAMILY DAVAINEIDAE.

Raillietina tetragona
HOST.

Final hosts: Chicken, guinea fowl and pigeon.

Intermediate hosts: Ants of the genera Pheidole and
Tetramorium.
LOCATION IN HOST.

Predilection site: Posterior half of small intestine.

MORPHOLOGY.

Description, gross: A medium sized

tapeworm reaching around 20–25 cm in length. The scolex is
smaller than that of R. echinobothrida.
Description, microscopic: The oval suckers are armed and the
rostellum bears one or two rows of hooks. The gravid proglottids
contain multiple fibrous-walled egg capsules, each housing many
eggs. Eggs measure approximately 65 × 90 μm. R. tetragona has
a larger number of egg capsules in the gravid proglottid than
either R. cesticillus or R. echinobothrida.
MORPHOLOGY.

Raillientina tetragona: scolex and proglottids.

LIFE CYCLE.

See R. cesticillus.
The prepatent period is around 2–3 weeks.
DIAGNOSIS.

R. tetragona is usually less pathogenic than either

R. echinobothrida or R. cesticillus.
FAMILY DILEPIDIDAE.

Choanotaenia infundibulum
HOSTS.

Final hosts: Chicken, turkey and several wild

game birds.
Intermediate hosts: The housefly, Musca
domestica, beetles of the genera Aphodius,
Calathus, Geotrupes and Tribolium, and
grasshoppers.
LOCATION IN HOST.

Predilection site: Upper small intestine.

MORPHOLOGY.

Description, gross: A relatively medium tapeworm up to around

20 cm in length and 1.5–3 mm in width. Each segment is wider
posteriorly, giving the margin of the tapeworm a ‘saw-edge’
appearance.
Description, microscopic: The rostellum is ringed with about 18
slender hooks. The genital pores alternate regularly. Eggs
measure about 45 × 55 μm and possess a long distinctive
filament.
MORPHOLOGY.
LIFE CYCLE.

The same as Raillietina sp.

DIAGNOSIS.

The same as Raillietina sp.

FAMILY HYMENOLEPIDIDAE.

These parasites are of minor veterinary importance.

Members of this family, which have a characteristically
slender strobila, infect birds, man and rodents
(Hymenolepis, Rodentolepis, Fimbriaria). The
intermediate stage is a cysticercoid present in an
arthropod host.
FAMILY HYMENOLEPIDIDAE.

Drepanidotaenia lanceolatum
Synonym: Hymenolepis lanceolata.
HOSTS.

Final hosts: Duck and goose.

Intermediate hosts: Aquatic (copepod) crustaceans

(genuses Cyclops and Diaptomus).

LOCATION IN HOST.

Predilection site: Small intestine.

MORPHOLOGY.

Description, gross: This is a slender tapeworm, reaching

up to 15–20 cm in length.
Description, microscopic: The proglottids are usually
wider than they are long.
LIFE CYCLE.

Infective stage (Cysticercoid) in crustaceans for 2

weeks.
Invasion becomes through eating the intermediate
host. The prepatent period is 3–4 weeks.
DIAGNOSIS.

Heavy infections can be fatal.

Antemortem diagnosis by finding the gravid
proglottides in bird’s faeces.
Postmortem: by necropsy and presence of mature
cestodes in small intestine.
FAMILY HYMENOLEPIDIDAE.

Fimbriaria fasciolaris
HOSTS.

Final hosts: Chicken, duck, goose and wild

anseriform birds.
Intermediate hosts: Copepods (Cyclops and
Diaptomus spp).
LOCATION IN HOST.

Predilection site: Small intestine.

MORPHOLOGY.

Description, gross: The adult tapeworms measure up to

about 40 cm in length by 1.5 mm in width.

Description, microscopic: The scolex possesses a

‘pseudoscolex’ (a folded expansion) for attachment to
the host.
LIFE CYCLE AND DIAGNOSIS.

The same like other hymenolepidids.

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