STRUCTURE OF AN ATOM

Observations from α- particles scattering experiment by

Rutherford:
a. Most of the α- particles passed through gold foil un deflected
b. A small fraction of α- particles got deflected through small
angles
c. Very few α- particles did not pass through foil but suffered large
deflection nearly180o
Conclusions Rutherford drew from α- particles scattering
experiment:
a. Since most of the α-particles passed through foil undeflected, it
means most of the space in atom is empty
b. Since some of the α-particles are deflected to certain angles, it
means that there is positively mass present in atom
c. Since only some of the α-particles suffered large deflections,
the positively charged mass must be occupying very small space
d. Strong deflections or even bouncing back of α-particles from
metal foil were due to direct collision with positively charged mass
in atom
 According to Rutherford’s model of atom, electrons which
are negatively charged particles revolve around the
nucleus in fixed orbits. Thus, the electrons undergo
acceleration. According to electromagnetic theory of
Maxwell, a charged particle undergoing acceleration
should emit electromagnetic radiation. Thus, an electron in
an orbit should emit radiation. Thus, the orbit should
shrink. But this does not happen
 Planck's Quantum Theory

• The radiant energy is emitted or absorbed not

continuously but discontinuously in the form of
small discrete packets of energy called ‘quantum’. In
case of light , the quantum of energy is called a
‘photon’
• The energy of each quantum is directly proportional
to the frequency of the radiation, i.e. E α υ or E=
hυ where h= Planck’s constant = 6.626 x 10-27 Js
• Energy is always emitted or absorbed as integral
multiple of this uantum. E=nhυ Where n=1,2,3,4,.....
 Electromagnetic radiations

• The radiations which are associated with electrical

and magnetic fields are called electromagnetic
radiations. When an electrically charged particle
moves under acceleration, alternating electricaland
magnetic fields are produced and transmitted.
These fields aretransmitted in the form of waves.
These waves are called electromagneticwaves or
electromagnetic radiations.
Electromagnetic theory:
According to this theory
•Energy is emitted or absorbed continuously in the
form of radiant energy.
•These radiations consist of electric and magnetic field
acting perpendicular to the direction of propagation
of wave.
•These waves can travel through medium as well as
through vacuum.
•The radiations travel with speed =3x108m/sec.
Wavelength:
It may be defined as the distance between two neighbouring
crests or troughs of wave as shown. It is denoted by λ.

Frequency (ν):
It may be defined as the number of waves which passthrough a
particular point in one second.

Velocity (v):
It is defined as the distance travelled by a wave in onesecond. In
vacuum all types of electromagnetic radiations travel with thesame
velocity. Its value is 3 ×10 8m sec-1. It is denoted by v

Wave number:
Wave number is defined as the number of wavelengths
per unit length.
Velocity = frequency ×wavelength c = νλ
 Dual behavior of electromagnetic radiation

• The light possesses both particle and wave like

properties, i.e., light has dual behavior . whenever
radiation interacts with matter, it displays particle
like properties.(Black body radiation and
photoelectric effect) Wave like properties are
exhibited when it propagates(interference an
diffraction)
 Dual behavior of matter
de Broglie proposed that matter exhibits
dualbehavior i.e. matter shows both particle
and wave nature. de Broglie’s relation is
 BOHR MODEL OF AN ATOM
a. An electron in the hydrogen atom can move around the
nucleus in a circular path of fixed radius and energy. These
paths are called orbits or energy levels. These orbits are
arranged concentrically around the nucleus
b. As long as an electron remains in a particular orbit, it does
not lose or gain energy and its energy remains constant.
c. When transition occurs between two stationary states that
differ in energy, the frequency of the radiation absorbed or
emitted can be calculated
.d.An electron can move only in those orbits for which its
angular momentum is an integral multiple of h/2π
 Limitations of Bohr’s model of atom:

a. Bohr’s model failed to account for the finer

details of the hydrogen spectrum.

b. Bohr’s model was also unable to explain

spectrum of atoms containing more than
one electron.
 Photoelectric effect:

The phenomenon of ejection of electrons from the

surface of metal when light of suitable frequency
strikes it is called photoelectric effect.
The ejected electrons are called photoelectrons.
Threshold frequency (vo) = minimum frequency of
the radiation

Work function (Wo) = required minimum energy of

the radiation

E = KE + Wo
∴ 1 / 2 mv2 = h(v – vo)
[Kinetic energy of ejected electron = h(v – vo)
where; v = frequency of incident radiation
vo = threshold frequency
 BLACK BODY
Black body: An ideal body, which emits and absorbs all
frequencies, is called a black body. The radiation emitted by
such a body is called black body radiation
DISCOVERY OF ELECTRON:
The Electron was discovered by J.J Thomson by conducting a
Cathode ray tube experiment.
For the experiment he used Crooke’s tube, which was 60cm long
glass tube and had a small tube attached. To this small tube
vacuum pump was attached, it also had two metal plates which
were connected to battery by wires.
The tube contained gas at atmospheric pressure. when current at high voltage
(10,000volts) was passed following observations were made:
•When current was passed through a gas at 1 atmospheric pressure and at a
very high voltage, nothing happened. That is no visible effect was seen inside
the tube.
•Then further the pressure of gas was reduced by pumping the air out, with the
help of vacuum pump. The pressure was reduced to 10 -2atm, then on passing
current it was seen that whole tube started glowing green.
•Then further the pressure was reduced to 10-4 .It was seen the whole glow
vanished, but it was seen that at the end of the tube (anode side) there was a
faint green glow observed.
To confirm the faint glow anode was made perforated, and a zinc sulphide
screen (fluorescent material) was placed behind it.

When current was passed under same conditions it also started glowing
green. This confirmed that under those conditions some rays were emitted
through cathode, and were travelling towards anode. Those rays were called as
cathode rays and found to consist of negatively charged particles called
electron.
Properties of cathode rays
•They are found to travel in straight line. This property
was concluded by performing an activity where the
object was placed in their path. When they strike it ,they
casted the shadow of the object as shown below :
2. Cathode rays are formed of material particles. This
property was concluded by performing an activity where
in their path a paddle was mounted on an axle. When
they strike it ,they rotated the paddle .This also
concludes that cathode ray produce mechanical effect.
•They are negatively charged. This property was
concluded by performing an activity where electric and
magnetic field was applied, they deflected towards
positive plate and in presence of magnetic field they
deflected towards north pole.
• When they strike some metal surface, they
heated it. So, it was concluded they can also
produce heating effect.

• They cause ionization of gas through which

they passed.

• They produce x-rays when strike against the

hard metal like tungsten etc.
NB
Electron was discovered as a result of study of cathode rays
by JJ Thomson. It was named by Stony
It carries a unit negative charge (-1.6 * 10-19 C).
DISCOVERY OF PROTON:
IT WAS DONE BY E. GOLDSTEIN
•In 1836 the same experiment was carried out where the same conditions
were provided. The gas at low pressure was taken and current was
passed.

•The high voltage between the electrodes was passed. It was found that
when cathode rays passed through the gas, they ionized the gas by taking
electrons along, leaving behind positively ionized gas particles.

•These particles were travelling towards cathode.These particles were

found to form the beam of rays of positively charged particles and were
called as canal rays.

•These rays consist of positively charged particles called a proton.

Rutherford discovered proton on the basis of
anode ray experiment.
It carries a unit positive charge (+1.6 * 10-19) C).
The mass of proton is 1.007276 U.
Properties of anode rays

•They also travel in straight line.

•They are also made up of particles.
•They carry positive charge.
•Their ratio of charge to mass was different for
different gas that was taken in tube.
MULLIKENS OIL DROP EXPERIMENT

• Charge :1.6 x 10-19C

DETERMINATION OF CHARGE/MASS RATIO
Electromagnetic Spectrum
The different types of electromagnetic radiations
differ only in their wavelengths and hence.
frequencies. When these electromagnetic radiations
are arranged in order to their increasing wavelengths
or decreasing frequencies, the complete spectrum
obtained is called electromagnetic spectrum.
Different Types of Radiations and Their Sources
 ATOMIC SPECTRA

• * SPECTRUM
• In this spectrum there is a continuity of
colours,i.e one colour merges into the other
without any gap or discontinuity and such a
spectrum is called continuous spectrum
 ATOMIC SPECTRA
Unlike the spectrum obtained by analyzing the sunlight ,the spectra of
atoms are not continuous. The spectra of atoms consists of sharp well
defined lines or bands corresponding to definite frequencies.
There are two types of atomic spectra

• EMISSION SPECTRA • ABSORPTION SPECTRA

Electromagnetic spectra may be emission or
absorption spectrum on the basis of energy absorbed
or emitted. An emission spectrum is obtained when a
substance emits radiation after absorbing energy. An
absorption spectra is obtained when a substance
absorbs certain wavelengths and leave dark spaces in
bright continuous spectrum.
Emission Spectrum of Hydrogen
According to Bohr’s theory. when an electron jumps from
ground states to excited state. it emits a radiation of definite
frequency (or wavelength). Corresponding to the wavelength
of each photon of light emitted, a bright line appears in the
spectrum.

The number of spectral lines in the spectrum when the

electron comes from nth level to the ground level
= n(n – 1) / 2
Hydrogen spectrum consist of line spectrum.
•When electrons de-excite from higher energy level (n2) to
lower energy level (n1) in atomic sample, then number of
spectral line observed in the spectrum is
(n2−n1)(n2−n1+1)/2
•When electron de-excites from higher energy level (n2) to
lower energy level (n1) in isolated atom, then number of
spectral line observed in the spectrum is
n2−n1
calculate number of spectral lines
From nth energy level to ground state
n(n-1)/2
And from n2 energy level to n1 energy level
(n2-n1)x(n2-n1+1)/2
So if electron jumps form 6 to 1 spectral lines will be
6 x (6–1)/2=15
CALCULATION OF RADIUS AND TOTAL ENERGY
For finding Kinetic energy of electrons:
 Heisenberg uncertainty Principle

• Uncertainty principle, also called Heisenberg

uncertainty principle or indeterminacy principle,
statement, articulated (1927) by the German
physicist Werner Heisenberg, that the position and
the velocity of an object cannot both be measured
exactly, at the same time, even in theory.
Quantum Mechanical Model of Atom
It is the branch of chemistry which deals with dual
behaviour of matter. It IS given by Werner Heisenberg and
Erwin Schrodinger
Schrodinger wave equation is

where. x, y, z = cartesian coordinates

m = mass of electron, E = total energy of electron
U =potential energy of electron, h =Planck’s constant
Ψ (Psi) = wave function which gives the amplitude of wave
Ψ2 = probability function
For H-atom. the equation is solved as
H Ψ = EΨ
where, H is the total energy operator, called
Hamiltonian. If the sum of kinetic energy operator (T)
and potential energy operator (U) is the total energy.
E of the system,
H=T+U
(T + U)Ψ = EΨ
[The atomic orbitals can be represented by the product of two wave
functions (i) radial wave function (ii) angular wave function.
The orbital wave function, Ψ has no significance, but Ψ2 has
significance, it measures the electron probability density at a point In an
atom. Ψ can he positive or negative but ‘I’:? is always positive
TOPIC :STRUCTURE OF AN ATOM
•Dalton’s atomic theory.
•Rutherford model of atom.
•Drawbacks of Rutherford model of an atom.
•Bohr model of an atom.
•Drawbacks of model of an atom.
•Planck’s Quantum theory of radiation.
•De-braglie relationship.
•Write the electronic configuration of
•S (b) Ca (c) Na+ (d) Cr (e) Zn (f) Mg (g) Cu (h) Fe2+
•Writes notes on
•Aufbau’s Principle
•Hund’s rule
•Pauli’s exclusion principle
• State Heisenberg uncertainty principle . Explain its significance.
•Define Quantum no. Explian its significance.
•Define orbits and orbitals.
•Which has higher energy 3d or 4s and why?.
 •Draw the shape of S, P and orbitals?
•Define node and nodal plane. Calculate the no of node for 2s.
•Explain why half filled and full filled orbital are more stable.
•Explain the following term
•Photoelectric effect (b) Emission spectra (c) Absorption Spectra (d)
Black-body radiation.
•What are cathode rays and anode rays. Give three characteristics of
each.
•Define
(a)Atomic no (b) Mass no (c) Isobars (d) Isotopes (e)
Electromagnetic radiation (f) Quanta (g) Photon (h) Zeeman effect (i)
Stark effect.
Explain Mullikans Oil drop experiment.
. Explain, Thomson experiment of determination of charge mass ratio
(elm) of an electron.