Python Object Oriented

J. Merhej
Outline
 Classes  Inheritance
 Defining classes  Print an object
 Using classes  issubclass()
 Encapsulation
 isinstance()
 Inheritance and Subclasses
 is operator
 Variables
 Multiple inheritance
 Instance variables
 Private variables  Creating your own
 Class variables exceptions
 Class built-in functions  Cisco: MODULE 3: OBJECT-
 Methods ORIENTED PROGRAMMING
 Inner life of classes and
objects
 Introspection and Reflection

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Classes
Defining classes
Using classes
Encapsulation
Inheritance and Subclases
Defining Classes
class name:
"documentation"
statements
-or-
class name(base1, base2, ...):
...

Most, statements are method definitions:

def name(self, arg1, arg2, ...):
...
May also be class variable assignments

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Using Classes
To create an instance, simply call the class object:
x = Stack() # no 'new' operator!
To use methods of the instance, call using dot notation:
x.empty()
x.push(1)
To inspect instance variables, use dot notation:
x.items

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Classes

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Stack Example – Procedural Vs OO approach
stack = [] class Stack:
def push(val): def __init__(self):
self.__stack_list = []
stack.append(val)
def push(self, val):
def pop(): self.__stack_list.append(val)
val = stack[-1]
del stack[-1] def pop(self):
val = self.__stack_list[-1]
return val
del self.__stack_list[-1]
push(3) return val
push(2) stack_object = Stack()
push(1) stack_object.push(3)
stack_object.push(2)
print(pop())
stack_object.push(1)
print(pop())
print(stack_object.pop())
print(pop()) print(stack_object.pop())
print(stack_object.pop())

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Encapsulation in Python
 When any class component has a name starting with two underscores (__), it
becomes private - this means that it can be accessed only from within the class.

 You cannot see it from the outside world. This is how Python implements the
encapsulation concept.

class Stack: class Stack:

def __init__(self): def __init__(self):
self.stack_list = [] self.__stack_list = []

stack_object = Stack() stack_object = Stack()

print(len(stack_object.stack_list)) print(len(stack_object.__stack_list))
--- 0

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Class Inheritance

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Class Inheritance
class Stack: def push(self, val):
def __init__(self): self.__sum += val
self.__stack_list = [] Stack.push(self, val)

def push(self, val): def pop(self):

self.__stack_list.append(val) val = Stack.pop(self)
self.__sum -= val
def pop(self): return val
val = self.__stack_list[-1]
del self.__stack_list[-1]
return val stack_object = AddingStack()

for i in range(5):
class AddingStack(Stack): stack_object.push(i)
def __init__(self): print(stack_object.get_sum())
Stack.__init__(self)
self.__sum = 0 for i in range(5):
print(stack_object.pop())
def get_sum(self):
return self.__sum

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Variables
Instance variables
Private variables
Class variables

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Instance Variables
 Each object carries its own set of properties - they don't interfere with
one another in any way. Such variables (properties) are called instance
variables.
 Modifying an instance variable of any object has no impact on all the
remaining objects.
 Python objects, when created, are gifted with a small set of predefined
properties and methods. Each object has got them, whether you want
them or not. One of them is a variable named __dict__ (it's a
dictionary).
 The variable contains the names and values of all the properties
(variables) the object is currently carrying. Let's make use of it to safely
present an object's contents.

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Instance Variables
class ExampleClass:
def __init__(self, val = 1):
self.first = val
def set_second(self, val):
self.second = val
example_object_1 = ExampleClass()
example_object_2 = ExampleClass(2)
example_object_2.set_second(3)
example_object_3 = ExampleClass(4)
example_object_3.third = 5
print(example_object_1.__dict__)
print(example_object_2.__dict__)
print(example_object_3.__dict__)-
{'first': 1}
{'first': 2, 'second': 3}
{'first': 4, 'third': 5}
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Private variables
class ExampleClass: Once added two
def __init__(self, val = 1): underscores (__) in front
self.__first = val of variable  makes the
instance variable private -
def set_second(self, val = 2):
self.__second = val
it becomes inaccessible
from the outer world.
example_object_1 = ExampleClass()
print(example_object_1._ExampleClass__first)
example_object_2 = ExampleClass(2) In this case, Python puts a
class name before your
example_object_2.set_second(3) name; it puts an
example_object_3 = ExampleClass(4) additional underscore at
example_object_3.__third = 5
the beginning.
print(example_object_1.__dict__)
print(example_object_2.__dict__)
print(example_object_3.__dict__) TRY IT

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Class variables
 A class variable is a property which exists in just one
copy and is stored outside any object.
Note: no instance variable exists if there is no object in
the class; a class variable exists in one copy even if
there are no objects in the class.
Class variables aren't shown in an object's __dict__
(this is natural as class variables aren't parts of an
object).
a class variable always presents the same value in all
class instances (objects)

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Class variables
class ExampleClass:
counter = 0
def __init__(self, val = 1):
self.__first = val
ExampleClass.counter += 1

example_object_1 = ExampleClass()
example_object_2 = ExampleClass(2)
example_object_3 = ExampleClass(4)

print(example_object_1.__dict__, example_object_1.counter)
print(example_object_2.__dict__, example_object_2.counter)
print(example_object_3.__dict__, example_object_3.counter) --
{'_ExampleClass__first': 1} 3 {'_ExampleClass__first': 2} 3
{'_ExampleClass__first': 4} 3

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Class Built-In functions

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Checking an attribute's existence
class ExampleClass: class ExampleClass:
def __init__(self, val): def __init__(self, val):
if val % 2 != 0: if val % 2 != 0:
self.a = 1 self.a = 1
else: else:
self.b = 1 self.b = 1

example_object = ExampleClass(1)
example_object = ExampleClass(1) print(example_object.a)
print(example_object.a)
print(hasattr(example_object, 'b'))
try: print(hasattr(ExampleClass, ‘a'))
print(example_object.b)
except AttributeError:
pass  1
 False
--1  False

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Built-in class functions
hasattr(obj,name) to check if an attribute exists or
not.
getattr(obj, name[, default]) : to access the attribute of
object.
setattr(obj,name,value) : to set an attribute. If attribute
does not exist, then it would be created.
delattr(obj, name) : to delete an attribute.

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Methods
Inner life of classes and objects
Introspection and Reflection

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Methods
As you already know, a method is a function embedded inside a
class. There is one fundamental requirement - a method is
obliged to have at least one parameter (there are no such thing as
parameter less methods - a method may be invoked without an
argument, but not declared without parameters).

The first (or only) parameter is usually named self. We suggest

that you follow the convention - it's commonly used, and you'll
cause a few surprises by using other names for it.
The name self suggests the parameter's purpose - it identifies the
object for which the method is invoked.

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Methods – Self parameter
class Classy: class Classy:
def __init__(self, value): varia = 2
self.var = value def method(self):
print(self.varia, self.var)

obj_1 = Classy("object")
obj = Classy()
print(obj_1.var) - ‘object’ obj.var = 3
obj.method()  2 3

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Inner life of classes and objects
__dict__ is a dictionary of object or class variables
 Another built-in property worth mentioning is __name__,
which is a string containing the name of the class.
Function type(), which is able to find a class which has
been used to instantiate any object.
__module__ is a string- it stores the name of the module
which contains the definition of the class.
__bases__ is a tuple. The tuple contains classes (not class
names) which are direct superclasses for the class.

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Inner life of classes and objects
class Classy: class Classy: class Classy:
varia = 1 pass pass
def __init__(self):
self.var = 2
print(Classy.__name__) print(Classy.__module__)
def method(self): obj = Classy() obj = Classy()
pass print(type(obj).__name__) print(obj.__module__)

def __hidden(self):  Classy  _main__

pass Classy  __main__

obj = Classy()
print(obj.__dict__)
print(Classy.__dict__)
TRY IT

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Inner life of classes and objects
class SuperOne:
pass

class SuperTwo:
pass

class Sub(SuperOne, SuperTwo):

pass

def printBases(cls):
print('( ', end='')

for x in cls.__bases__:
print(x.__name__, end=' ')
print(')')

printBases(SuperOne)
printBases(SuperTwo)
printBases(Sub)  ( object ) ( object ) ( SuperOne SuperTwo )

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 Introspection and Reflection
• introspection, class MyClass:
which is the pass
ability of a
program to obj = MyClass()
examine the type obj.a = 1
or properties of obj.b = 2
obj.i = 3
an object at
obj.ireal = 3.5
runtime;
obj.integer = 4
• reflection, which obj.z = 5
goes a step
further, and is def incIntsI(obj):
the ability of a for name in obj.__dict__.keys():
program to if name.startswith('i'):
manipulate the val = getattr(obj, name)
values, if isinstance(val, int):
properties setattr(obj, name, val + 1)
and/or functions
of an object at print(obj.__dict__)
runtime. incIntsI(obj)
print(obj.__dict__) TRY IT

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Inheritance
Print an object
issubclass()
isinstance()
is operator

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Inheritance – Print an object
 When Python needs any class/object to be presented as a string, it tries to invoke a
method named __str__() from the object and to use the string it returns.
 The default __str__() method returns the previous string - ugly and not very
informative. You can change it just by defining your own method of the name.

class Star: class Star:

def __init__(self, name, galaxy):
def __init__(self, name, self.name = name
galaxy): self.galaxy = galaxy
self.name = name
self.galaxy = galaxy def __str__(self):
return self.name + ' in ' + self.galaxy
sun = Star("Sun", "Milky Way")
print(sun)
<__main__.Star object at sun = Star("Sun", "Milky Way")
0x79025c7854b0> print(sun)
Sun in Milky Way

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Inheritance: issubclass()
class Vehicle:
 Issubclass(class1 pass
,class2): can
check if a class LandVehicle(Vehicle):
particular class pass
is a subclass of
any other class.
class TrackedVehicle(LandVehicle):
pass

for cls1 in [Vehicle, LandVehicle, TrackedVehicle]:

for cls2 in [Vehicle, LandVehicle, TrackedVehicle]:
True False False print(issubclass(cls1, cls2), end="\t")
True True False print()
True True True

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Inheritance: class Vehicle:
pass
isinstance() class LandVehicle(Vehicle):
pass
 Isinstance(obj,cls
) : to detect if an class TrackedVehicle(LandVehicle):
object is an pass
instance of a
class
my_vehicle = Vehicle()
my_land_vehicle = LandVehicle()
my_tracked_vehicle = TrackedVehicle()

for obj in [my_vehicle, my_land_vehicle,

my_tracked_vehicle]:
for cls in [Vehicle, LandVehicle, TrackedVehicle]:
print(isinstance(obj, cls), end="\t")
print() ------

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Inheritance: is operator
 The is operator checks
whether two variables
(object_one and object_two
here) refer to the same
object.
 Assigning a value of an
object variable to another
variable doesn't copy the
object.
False
False
True
1 2 1
Mary had a little lamb
True False
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class SampleClass:
def __init__(self, val):
self.val = val
object_1 = SampleClass(0)
object_2 = SampleClass(2)
object_3 = object_1
object_3.val += 1
print(object_1 is object_2)
print(object_2 is object_3)
print(object_3 is object_1)
print(object_1.val, object_2.val, object_3.val)
string_1 = "Mary had a little "
string_2 = "Mary had a little lamb"
string_1 += "lamb"
print(string_1)
print(string_1 == string_2, string_1 is string_2)
31
Inheritance Example
super() function, which accesses the superclass without needing to know its name:

class Super: class Super:

supVar = 1
def __init__(self, name):
self.name = name
class Sub(Super):
def __str__(self): subVar = 2
return "My name is " + self.name + "."

obj = Sub()
class Sub(Super):
def __init__(self, name): print(obj.subVar)
Super.__init__(self, name) print(obj.supVar)

obj = Sub("Andy")
print(obj)

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 100 101 102
Three level Inheritance 200 201 202
300 301 302

class Level1: class Level3(Level2):

variable_1 = 100 variable_3 = 300
def __init__(self): def __init__(self):
self.var_1 = 101 super().__init__()
self.var_3 = 301
def fun_1(self):
return 102 def fun_3(self):
return 302
class Level2(Level1):
variable_2 = 200
def __init__(self): obj = Level3()
super().__init__()
self.var_2 = 201 print(obj.variable_1, obj.var_1, obj.fun_1())
print(obj.variable_2, obj.var_2, obj.fun_2())
def fun_2(self): print(obj.variable_3, obj.var_3, obj.fun_3())
return 202

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Multiple Inheritance
class SuperA:
var_a = 10
def fun_a(self):
return 11

class SuperB: 10 11
var_b = 20 20 21
def fun_b(self):
return 21

class Sub(SuperA, SuperB):

pass

obj = Sub()

print(obj.var_a, obj.fun_a())
print(obj.var_b, obj.fun_b())

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Multiple Inheritance
class Level1:
var = 100
def fun(self):
return 101

class Level2(Level1):
200 201
var = 200
def fun(self):
return 201

class Level3(Level2):
pass

obj = Level3()

print(obj.var, obj.fun())

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Multiple Inheritance
class Left:
var = "L"
var_left = "LL" Python looks for object components in
def fun(self): the following order:
return "Left"
• inside the object itself;
class Right: • in its superclasses, from bottom to
var = "R" top;
var_right = "RR"
• if there is more than one class on a
def fun(self):
return "Right" particular inheritance path, Python
scans them from left to right.

class Sub(Left, Right):

pass

obj = Sub() L LL RR Left

print(obj.var, obj.var_left, obj.var_right,
obj.fun())

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 class MyZeroDivisionError(ZeroDivisionError):
Creating your own pass
exceptions def do_the_division(mine):
if mine:
print('some worse news')
raise MyZeroDivisionError("some worse news")
My division by zero
else:
False
print('some bad news')
some bad news
raise ZeroDivisionError("some bad news")
Division by zero
True
for mode in [False, True]:
some worse news
try:
Division by zero
print(mode)
some bad news
do_the_division(mode)
Original division by
except ZeroDivisionError:
zero
print('Division by zero')
some worse news
My division by zero
for mode in [False, True]:
try:
do_the_division(mode)
except MyZeroDivisionError:
print('My division by zero')
except ZeroDivisionError:
print('Original division by zero')
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 class PizzaError(Exception):
Creating your own def __init__(self, pizza, message):
Exception.__init__(self, message)
exceptions self.pizza = pizza

class TooMuchCheeseError(PizzaError):
def __init__(self, pizza, cheese, message):
Pizza ready!
PizzaError.__init__(self, pizza, message)
too much cheese : 110
self.cheese = cheese
no such pizza on the
menu : mafia
def make_pizza(pizza, cheese):
if pizza not in ['margherita', 'capricciosa', 'calzone']:
raise PizzaError(pizza, "no such pizza on the menu")
if cheese > 100:
raise TooMuchCheeseError(pizza, cheese, "too much
cheese")
print("Pizza ready!")

for (pz, ch) in [('calzone', 0), ('margherita', 110), ('mafia', 20)]:

try:
make_pizza(pz, ch)
except TooMuchCheeseError as tmce:
print(tmce, ':', tmce.cheese)
except PizzaError as pe:
print(pe, ':', pe.pizza)
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Python vs Java

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Python vs. Java
 Hello World

 String Operations

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Python vs. Java
 Collections

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Python vs. Java
 Class and Inheritance

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