CHAPTER THREE:

NEUROSCIENCE AND BEHAVIOR

MA. LEA A. RONDA, Ph.D.

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Neurons (Nerve cells)
Basic elements of the nervous system
As many as 1 trillion
The building blocks of the nervous system
A specialized cell that transmit neural impulses to
other neurons, glands and muscles

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Dendrites
Clusters of fibers at one end of a
neuron that receive messages
from other neurons
receive information from other
neurons and transmit towards the
cell body.
Cell body
keeps the neuron alive and
determines whether it will fire.
Axon
Carries messages received by the
dendrites to other neurons

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Terminal buttons
small bulges at the end of axons
that send messages to other neurons
Myelin sheath
Protective coating of fat and protein that
wraps around the axon like links of sausage
Serves to increase the velocity with which
electrical impulses travel through axons

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Nerve
Bundle of axons belonging to many
neurons
Nucleus
a group of cell bodies in the brain and
spine
Ganglion
A group of cell bodies outside the brain
and spine
Glial cells
Nonneuronal cells that hold the neurons in
place and remove dead neurons and
waste products
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Transmit an electrical
impulse along the
axon
All-or-none law
Resting state
Action potential
Mirror neurons

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 Axon terminals
release
neurotransmitter
 Neurotransmitter

enters synaptic gap.

 Neurotransmitter

binds to receptors
that it fits.

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 A brief change in electrical voltage which
occurs between the inside and outside of
an axon when a neuron is stimulated. It
produces an electrical impulse.

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=BbUcWbtVjT4

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 Synaptic transmission
◦ i. A neuron fires an action potential when
the stimulation reaching it exceeds a
certain consistent threshold
◦ ii. The all-or-none principle says that
action potentials are constant and occur
only if the threshold is reached
◦ iii. When an action potential reaches the
synaptic terminals it stimulated the
synaptic vesicles which cross the synapse
and bind to receptors

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◦ Receptors
 These are proteins lodged in the
dendritic membrane of the receiving
or postsynaptic neuron
 The neurotransmitter and receptor
have to match in order to effect the
receiving cell and cause it fire

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 iv. If a neurotransmitter is not used
immediately, it is cleared from the
synapse through reuptake, in which it
is reabsorbed by the synaptic terminal
where it was released
 v. The neurotransmitter may also go

through degradation, in which enzymes

in synaptic gap react with the
neurotransmitter to break it up
chemically and make it inactive

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 A chemical substance that is released by a
transmitting neuron at the synapse and that
alters the activity of a receiving neuron.

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 Acetylcholine (Ach)
◦ Slows down the body, memory, and attention (involved in
Alzheimer’s disease)
 Dopamine (DA)
◦ Voluntary movement, attention, and learning; high levels
are associated w/ schizophrenia
 Endorphin
◦ Reduce sensitivity to pain; linked with pleasure (opiate-
like)
 Serotonin
◦ Arousal, sleep; Prozac increases levels of serotonin
 Norepinephrine
◦ Helps control alertness and arousal; low levels can
depress mood

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 A. Divisions of the nervous system
◦ i. There are two major divisions
 Central nervous system
 All neurons in the brain and spinal
cord
 Peripheral nervous system
 Consists of the nerves connecting
the brain and spinal cord to the
other parts of the body

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 Brain -- average adult
human brain weighs
approximately 3 pound(s).

 Spinal cord
◦ A collection of neurons and
supportive tissue running from
the base of the brain down the
center of the back.
◦ Protected by spinal column.

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 Somatic
◦ Includes the nerves that are connected to sensory
receptors and skeletal muscles.
◦ Carries messages to and from the sense receptor
muscles and surface of the body
◦ Voluntary movements
 Autonomic
◦ The sympathetic nervous system mobilizes bodily
resources and increases the output of energy
during emotion and stress.
◦ The parasympathetic nervous system operates
during relaxed states and that conserves energy
◦ Connects with the internal organs and glands
◦ Controls organs that function automatically
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 ii. The sensory nerves of the somatic
system transfer information about
external stimuli from the skin, muscles,
and joints to the CNS
 iii. The motor nerves of the somatic

system carry impulses from the central

nervous system to the muscles
 iv. Most of the nerve fibers connecting

the brain to the body are located in the

spinal cord

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 Sympathetic Division
Acts to prepare the body for action in stressful
situations by engaging all of the organism’s resources
to run away or confront the threat
“Fight or flight”

Parasympathetic Division
Calms the body after emergency ends

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 Evolutionary Psychology
Branch of psychology that seeks to identify how behavior
is influenced and produced by our genetic inheritance
from our ancestors

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 Behavioral Genetics
Studies the effects of heredity on behavior
Molecular genetics and psychological
disorders
Genetic markers
Behavioral genetics, gene therapy, and
genetic counseling

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 Electroencephalogram (EEG)

Functional Magnetic Resonance Imaging

(fMRI)

Positron Emission Tomography (PET)

Transcranial Magnetic Stimulation (TMS)

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 Lesioning
◦ Involves damaging and removing sections of
brain in animals, then observing their effects.
 Transcranial magnetic stimulated (TMS)
◦ Stimulates brain cells using a powerful magnetic
field produced by a wire coil placed on the head.

◦ Can be used to temporarily inactivate neural

circuits.

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 A recording of neural activity detected by
electrodes.

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 A method for analyzing biochemical activity in
the brain, using injections of a glucose-like
substance containing a radioactive element.
 Active areas have
increased blood flow.
 Sensors detect
radioactivity.
 Different tasks show
distinct activity
patterns.
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 Method for studying body
and brain tissue.
 Magnetic fields align certain
ions and compounds.
 When field is removed,
these molecules release
energy as radio waves.
 Computer calculates tissue
density from radio waves.
 Provides clear, 3D images.

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 Three regions based on location
◦ Hindbrain
 Includes structures located in the
posterior part of the brain
◦ Midbrain
 Located in the middle of the brain
◦ Forebrain
 Anterior part of the brain

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 Three concentric layers of the brain
◦ The central core
 Known as the brain stem controls
involuntary and primitive behaviors
 Includes all structures in the hindbrain
and midbrain as well as the thalamus and
hypothalamus
◦ Limbic system
 Control emotion
◦ Cerebrum
 Regulates higher intellectual process

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Central Core
Hindbrain
Medulla
Breathing
and
heartbeat
Pons
Transmitter
of motor
information
Cerebellum
Balance

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Central Core
Reticular formation
Passes through the midbrain and into
the forebrain
Activates other parts of the brain to
produce bodily arousal
Thalamus
Relay station for information about the
senses
Hypothalamus
Homeostasis

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 Pons
◦ involved in sleeping, waking
and dreaming.
 Medulla
◦ A narrow structure
responsible for certain
automatic functions such as
breathing and heart rate.
 Reticular activating
system (or formation)

◦ arouses cortex and screens

incoming information.
◦ Important role in controlling
arousal and in the ability to
focus attention 41
 Regulates movement
and balance and
learning new motor
responses
 Involved in
remembering simple
skills and acquired
reflexes.
 Plays a part in analyzing
sensory information,
solving problems and
understanding words.

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 Acts as sensory relay
station, directing
information from the
sense receptors to the
cerebrum
 Relays sensory messages
to the cerebral cortex.
 Includes all sensory
messages except those
from olfactory bulb.
 Also important for control
of sleep and wakefulness
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 Involved in emotions and drives
vital to survival including fear,
hunger, thirst, and reproduction.
 Plays a role in the sensation of
emotions and responses to stress
 Also regulates autonomic
nervous system.
 Controls the production of Pituitary Gland

hormones
 Regulates endocrine activity to
maintain homeostasis- process
that maintains the normal level
of functioning characteristic of a
healthy organism

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The Limbic System:
Beyond the Central Core
A set of structures
closely interconnected with
the hypothalamus that
impose additional controls
over instinctive behaviors
regulated by the
hypothalamus and brain
stem
Contains the
hippocampus and amydala
Involved in emotional
behavior

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 Responsible for the
storage of new information
in memory.
 Compares information with
what the brain has come to
expect about the world.
 “Gateway to memory”
because it enables us to
navigate through the
environment.

 Amygdala
◦ Feeding
◦ Memory
◦ Emotion

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Cerebral Cortex
Gives the ability to
think, evaluate, and
make complex
judgments
Lobes
Frontal
Parietal
Temporal
Occipital

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 Occipital lobes
◦ Visual cortex.
 Parietal lobes
◦ Somatosensory cortex.
 Temporal lobes
◦ Memory, perception, emotion and auditory cortex.
◦ Left lobe, Wernicke’s area
 Frontal lobes
◦ Emotion, planning, creative thinking and motor
cortex. Broca’s area- responsible for speech production

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The Motor Area of the Cortex
Largely responsible for the body’s voluntary movement

The Sensory Area of the Cortex

Corresponds to body sensations
Somatosensory area
Touch
Pressure

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The Association Areas of the Cortex
Executive functions
Higher mental processes such as thinking,
language, memory, and speech
Broca’s aphasia-- labors to find the right words, and
sentences often are not grammatical
Wernicke’s aphasia-- language disorder in which
speech sounds fluent but makes no sense

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Neuroplasticity
The brain continually reorganizing itself

Neurogenesis
New neurons created in certain areas of the brain
during adulthood

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Left and right symmetrical halves
Lateralized
Left
Verbal competence
Processes information sequentially
Right
Spatial relationships
Recognition of patterns and drawings
Music
Emotional expression
Processes information globally

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 Contralateral arrangement
 Corpus callosum

◦ Thick band of nerve fibers connecting the

hemispheres
◦ It’s how the 2 hemispheres communicate
 Right-brained vs. left-brained?

OR
Split-brain patients
Corpus callosum
surgically cut

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