Skeletal System

Dr.K.Satish Ravi,
M.B.B.S.,M.D.,MAMS,PhD(Std)
Associate Professor
Department of Anatomy,
AIIMS, Rishikesh
 SKELETON (skeletos)
Bony & cartilaginous framework of the body
Endoskeleton
Exoskeleton
Functions-
Rigid framework of the body
Protection to the viscera
Provides leverage for body movements.
 The Skeletal System

 Parts of the skeletal system

 Bones (skeleton)
 Joints
 Cartilages
 Ligaments (bone to bone) (tendon=bone to
muscle)
Bone :-

Highly vascular mineralized connective tissue ,

consisting of cells & dense intercellular organic matrix

impregnated with organic salts.

Functions
1. Shape & Support
2. Protection
3. Movement
4. Storage
5. Hematopoiesis
CLASSIFICATION of BONES cont’n.

• According to location

AXIAL

skull 22
hyoid 1
ossicles 6
vertebrae 26
ribs & sternum 25_
80
CLASSIFICATION of BONES cont’n.

• According to location

APPENDICULAR
Upper Extremities Lower Extremities
clavicle 2 hip bone 2
scapulae 2 femur 2
humerus 2 patella 2
radius 2 tibia 2
ulna 2 fibula 2
carpals 16 tarsals 14
metacarpals 10 metatarsals 10
phalanges 28__ phalanges 28__
64 62
AXIAL SKELETON
I. SKULL
= skeleton --- head & face
= flattened & irregular
= united by joints (sutures)
 cranium -- skull minus mandible
 calvarium -- skull after the bones of the
face have been removed
 cavities: a. Cranial - contains the brain
b. Orbital - contains eyeball
& accessory organs
c. nasal
The Skull
Bones of the Skull
Human Skull, Superior View
Human Skull, Inferior View

Figure 5.9
Divisions of the bones of the skull
a. Cerebral / cranial bones / brain case (8 bones)
unpaired (4) paired (4)
1. occipital 1. parietal
2. frontal 2. temporal
3. sphenoid
4. ethmoid
b. Facial or visceral cranium
paired (12) unpaired (2)
a. Nasal a. Vomer
b. Lacrimal b. Mandible
c. Maxilla
d. Zygomatic / malar / cheek bones
e. Palatine
f. Inferior nasal concha or turbinate
Paranasal Sinuses
 Functions of paranasal sinuses
 Lighten the skull
 Give resonance and amplification to voice
Fontanelle
= membrane filled spaces found in the skull of
newborn infants

e.g.: 1. anterior = largest

2. posterior
3. anterolateral (sphenoidal)
4. posterolateral (mastoid)
AXIAL SKELETON
I. HYOID BONE
= small U-shape; lies in front of the neck
= base of the tongue is attached
= lies between mandible & thyroid cartilage

II. OSSICLES
= small bones of the ear
a. Stapes (stirrup) 2
b. Incus (anvil) 2
c. Malleus (hammer) 2
AXIAL SKELETON
I. VERTEBRAL COLUMN
= long, curved, slightly movable pillar
= united together by cartilage & ligaments
= 71 – 75 cm. long
= formed by series of bones -- vertebrae

FUNCTION:
1. support of the trunk
2. contains & protects the spinal cord
& nerves
VERTEBRAL COLUMN
Classification of vertebra young adult
cervical 7 7
thoracic 12 12
lumbar 5 5
sacral 5 1
coccygeal 4 1
33 26
Intervertebral discs = flattened plates of fibrocartilage that
are interposed between the adjacent surfaces of the
bodies of vertebrae
FUNCTION: 1. uniting medium between vertebrae
2. main shock absorber
3. give flexibility & movement to the whole
vertebral column
VERTEBRAL COLUMN
General parts of vertebrae
1. body 5. transverse process
2. arch 6. articular process
3. pedicle or root 7. spinous process
4. lamina 8. spinal or vertebral foramen

Special characteristics of individual vertebrae

a. Cervical vertebrae (7) = forms the skeleton of the neck,
all have transverse foramen
atypical cervical vertebrae:
1. atlas -- 1st
2. axis or epistropheus = 2nd
3. 7th cervical vertebrae = spinous process not
bifid, small transverse foramen
b. Thoracic vertebrae (12) = costal pits - rib attachment
= circular vertebral canal
VERTEBRAL COLUMN
Special characteristics of individual vertebrae cont’n

c. Lumbar vertebrae (5) = presence of mamillary &

accessory processes
= triangular vertebral foramen

d. Sacrum = inverted triangular bone situated between

hip bones

e. Coccygeal vertebrae (1) = 4 small incomplete vertebrae

fused to form the coccyx / tail bone; triangular
AXIAL SKELETON
I. STERNUM (breast bone)
= flat bone, found -- anterior thoracic wall
= composed of 2 plates of compact bone
with a layer of spongy bone in
between
containing red bone marrow

PARTS:
a. Manubrium
b. Corpus or body
c. Xiphoid process
AXIAL SKELETON
I. RIBS (12 pairs)
= narrow arched flat bones with 2 ends
1. vertebral - posterior; attaches with thoracic
2. sternal - anterior; attaches with costal cartilages

Classification of ribs:
a. Sternal or true ribs (1st to 7th)
- ribs whose costal cartilages are directly
attached to sternum
b. Asternal or false ribs (8th to 12th)
- ribs whose costal cartilages are not attached
directly to the sternum but to 7th

subdivisions: 1. false rib proper - 8th, 9th, 10th ribs

2. floating or hanging ribs – 11th & 12th
APPENDICULAR SKELETON
BONES of the UPPER EXTREMITY (UE)

1. Clavicle (collar bone)

2. Scapula (shoulder blade) – articulates with
humerus & clavicle
3. Humerus (arm bone) - longest &
largest bone of UE
articulates with scapula (above)
radius & ulna (below)
4. Radius - lateral bone of the forearm; cup-
shaped head
5. Ulna - principal bone of the forearm;
longer & larger than radius
 APPENDICULAR SKELETON
BONES of the UPPER EXTREMITY (UE) cont’n
6. Carpals (wrist bone) - 8 bones arranged into 2
rows
- proximal & distal rows
She Looks Too Pretty Try To Catch Her
Scaphoid, Lunate,Triquetrum, Pisiform,Trapezium,
Trapezoid Capitate, Hamate
7. Metacarpals (bones of the hand) - 5 long bones
placed between carpals & phalanges
- numbered from lateral to medial
1. Phalanges (bones of the fingers) = 14 long bones of
the fingers -- 3 bones except thumb - 2 bones
APPENDICULAR SKELETON
BONES of the LOWER EXTREMITY (LE)
1. Hip bone (innominate bone)

right & left hip bones + sacrum = pelvic girdle

3 bones: 1. ilium*
*Converge on acetabulum  a
2. ischium*
concave fossa -- articulates with head
3. pubis* of femur  form hip joint
2. Femur (thigh) = longest, strongest, largest bone in
the body
3. Tibia (shin bone) = long bone; anterior, medial,
& larger of the 2 bones of the leg
4. Fibula (peroneal bone) = long slender bone placed
parallel with the tibia but located
laterally
APPENDICULAR SKELETON
BONES of the LOWER EXTREMITY (LE) cont’n
5. Tarsals (ankle bone) = short bones;
2 rows: internal & external rows #
6. Metatarsals (bones of foot) = 5 long bones
numbered from medial to lateral
7. Phalanges (bones of toes) = similar to bones of
the fingers

# Cute Tina Never Could Cooperate

CLASSIFICATION of BONES
• According to shape
1. long bones = length is greater than breadth
= consists of shaft (diaphysis) &
two extremities (epiphysis)
diaphysis = filled with yellow marrow
= cylindrical, large space or canal at the center
= periosteum
epiphysis = made up of cancellous tissue
e.g.: femur, humerus, tibia, fibula, radius, ulna, phalanges

Membranes: 1. periosteum
2. endosteum
CLASSIFICATION of BONES cont’n.

• According to shape
2. short bones = cuboidal in shape
= spongy bone with thin coat of compact bone
e.g.: carpals (wrist), tarsal (ankle) bones

3. flat bones = broad or elongated flat plates

= for protection & muscle attachments
composition: 2 thin layers of compact tse. enclosing
a thin layer of spongy bone
e.g.: bones of the skull, sternum, ribs, scapula
CLASSIFICATION of BONES cont’n.

• According to shape

4. Irregular bones = all other bones not assigned to

the previous groups

e.g.: vertebrae
pelvic bones
bones of the base of the skull
5. Sesamoid bone -- short bone embedded in a tendon e.g.:
patella
CLASSIFICATION of BONES cont’n.

• According to shape

6.Pneumatic bones- flat or irregular bones possessing a

hollow space with in their body, contains air.

e.g.: ethmoid
maxilla
mastoid part of temporal bone.
7. Accessory bones- (supernumerary) ununited epiphyses
developed from extra centres of ossification.

e.g.: Sutural bones

Os trigonum.
CLASSIFICATION of BONES cont’n.

• According to development
1. Membranous = starts as fibrous membrane,
calcium gradually deposited until structure
becomes ossified  intramembranous ossification

e.g.: bones of the skull, mandible

2. Cartilagenous = starts as cartilage, gradually ossified

enchondral or intracartilagenous ossification.

e.g.: long bones

2 Types of Bone

Compact bone

Spongy bone
CLASSIFICATION of BONES

• According to structure

1. compact = solid mass; dense & hard

= forms the outer layer of bone structure
= functional unit --- Haversian system

2. cancellous or spongy = contain spaces

filled with bone marrow
= incomplete Haversian system
Gross Anatomy of a Long Bone

 Diaphysis
 Shaft
 Composed of
compact bone
 Epiphysis
 Ends of the bone
 Composed mostly of
spongy bone Figure 5.2a
Structures of a Long Bone
 Periosteum
 Outside covering of
the diaphysis
 Fibrous connective
tissue membrane
 Sharpey’s fibers
 Secure periosteum to
underlying bone
 Arteries
 Supply bone cells Figure 5.2c

with nutrients
Structures of a Long Bone

 Articular cartilage
 Covers the
external surface of
the epiphyses
 Made of hyaline
cartilage
 Decreases friction
at joint surfaces Figure 5.2a
Structures of a Long Bone

 Medullary cavity
 Cavity of the shaft
 Contains yellow
marrow (mostly fat)
in adults
 Contains red marrow
(for blood cell
formation) in infants Figure 5.2a
Composition of bone matrix
1) Inorganic salts: the hardness of bone result
from the deposition of high specialized
chemical crystal of calcium & phosphorous
called hydroxyapatite, the process called
calcification in addition to mg, Na, sulphate
and fluoride.
2) Organic substance: collagen fiber & mixture
protein and poly saccarids called ground
substance, provide support and adhesion
between cellular and fiberous.
 Chondroitin and glucosamine are required for
repair and maintenance of bone and cartilage.
This bone:
a. Has been demineralized
b. Has had its organic component removed
Types of bone cells
1. Osteoblasts
 Bone-forming cells found in all
bone surfaces Bone-building
cells.
 Synthesize and secrete collagen

fibers and other organic

components of bone matrix.
 serve as a framework for the

deposition of calcium and

phosphate calcification

The blue arrows indicate

the osteoblasts. The
yellow arrows indicate the
bone matrix they’ve just
secreted. 72
Types of bone cells
2. Osteoclasts
 Giant multinucleate cells
 Responsible for the active

erosion of bone minerals

 Contain large numbers of

mitochondria and lysosomes

73
 Types of bone cells
3. Osteocytes—mature, nondividing osteoblast
surrounded by matrix, lying within lacunae

Ahmad ata 74
Bone Marrow
Specialized type of soft, diffuse connective tissue;
called myeloid tissue
Site for the production of blood cells
Found in medullary cavities of long bones and in the
spaces of spongy bone
Bone Marrow
Two types of marrow are present during a
person’s lifetime:
Red marrow
 Found in virtually all bones in an infant’s or child’s body
 Functions to produce red blood cells

Yellow marrow
 As an individual ages, red marrow is replaced by yellow marrow
 Marrow cells become saturated with fat and are no longer active

in blood cell production

Bone Marrow
The main bones in an adult that still contain red
marrow include the ribs, bodies of the vertebrae,
the humerus, the pelvis, and the femur
Yellow marrow can alter to red marrow during
times of decreased blood supply, such as with
anemia, exposure to radiation, and certain diseases
Microscopic Structure of Compact Bone
 Contains many cylinder-shaped
structural units called osteons, or
Haversian systems
 Four types of structures make up
each osteon:

 Lamella—concentric, cylinder-
shaped layers of calcified matrix
Lacunae—small spaces
containing tissue fluid in which
bone cells are located between
hard layers of the lamella

79
Microscopic Structure of
Compact Bone

Canaliculi—ultrasmall canals
radiating in all directions
from the lacunae and
connecting them to each
other and to the Haversian
canal
Haversian canal—extends
lengthwise through the center
of each osteon and contains
blood vessels and lymphatic
vessels

80
 Microscopic Structure of
Compact Bone

Ahmad ata 81
Microscopic Anatomy of Bone
 Osteon (Haversian System)
 A unit of bone
 Central (Haversian) canal
 Opening in the center of an osteon
 Carries blood vessels and nerves
 Perforating (Volkman’s) canal
 Canal perpendicular to the central canal
 Carries blood vessels and nerves
Microscopic Anatomy of Bone

Figure 5.3
Changes in the Human Skeleton
 In embryos, the skeleton is primarily
hyaline cartilage
 During development, much of this cartilage
is replaced by bone
 Cartilage remains in isolated areas
 Bridge of the nose
 Parts of ribs
 Joints
•Specialized connective tissue
•Rigid, Elastic, Resilient -
RESISTS COMPRESSION
•AVASCULAR –
nutrients diffuse through matrix
PERICHONDRIUM
Dense irregularly
arranged connective
tissue (type I collagen)
Ensheaths the
cartilage
Houses the blood
vessels that nourish
chondrocytes
CHONDROBLAST
Progenitor of
chondrocytes
Lines border between
perichondrium and
matrix
Secretes type II
collagen and other
components
Chondroblasts build
 CHONDROCYTE
Mature cartilage cell
Reside in a space called
the lacuna
Clear areas = Golgi and
lipid droplets
Chondrocytes
completely fill their
lacunae
RER and
euchromatic nuclei N
Synthetically active, RER
secrete matrix
Cartilage matrix
 MATRIX
Provides the rigidity,
elasticity, & resilience
FIBERS
 Collagenous and elastic

GROUND SUBSTANCE
 Glycosaminoglycans
(chondroitin sulfates, keratin
sulfate, hyaluronic acid)
 Proteoglycans: GAGs + core
protein
 Water
Basophilic
Territorial matrix - high [ ] of
sulfated proteoglycans
CARTILAGE GROWTH
Appositional
Increasing in WIDTH;
chondroblasts
deposit matrix on
surface of pre-existing
cartilage

Interstitial
Increasing in
LENGTH;
chondrocytes divide
and secrete matrix
from w/in lacunae
TYPES OF CARTILAGE
HYALINE

ELASTIC

FIBROUS
HYALINE CARTILAGE
FUNCTION
 Support tissue and organs
 Model for bone development
MATRIX
 Type II collagen (thin
fibrils)
 Chondroitin sulfate, keratin
sulfate, hyaluronic acid
 Water
LOCATION
 Tracheal rings, nasal septum,
larynx, articular surfaces of
joints
 ELASTIC CARTILAGE
FUNCTION
 Support with flexibility
MATRIX
 Normal components of
hyaline matrix plus ELASTIC
fibers
LOCATION
 External ear, external auditory
canal, epiglottis perichondrium
STAINS
 Elastic fibers stain BLACK
with Weigert stain
 FIBROCARTILAGE

Orcein van Giesen Elastic stain - fibrocartilage - reddish brown

hyaline cartilage - yellow
FIBROCARTILAGE
FUNCTION
Support with great
tensile strength
MATRIX
Type I collagen -
Oriented parallel to
stress plane
LOCATION
Intervertebral disks,
pubic symphysis
FIBROCARTILAGE
Chondrocytes align
between collagen
fibers
Collagen fibers lie
parallel to lines of
stress
Bone Growth

 Epiphyseal plates allow for growth of long

bone during childhood
 New cartilage is continuously formed
 Older cartilage becomes ossified
 Cartilage is broken down
 Bone replaces cartilage
Bone Growth

 Bones are remodeled and lengthened

until growth stops
 Bones change shape somewhat
 Bones grow in width
Long Bone Formation and Growth

Figure 5.4a
Bone Fractures
 A break in a bone
 Types of bone fractures
 Closed (simple) fracture – break that does not
penetrate the skin
 Open (compound) fracture – broken bone penetrates
through the skin
 Greenstick- frays, hard to repair, breaks like a green
twig
 Bone fractures are treated by reduction and
immobilization
 Realignment of the bone
Common Fractures
greenstick fracture
= the bone does not break all of
the way through.
simple, or closed
= when the bone breaks but the
skin does not.
compound, or open
= when the broken bone tears
through the skin, introducing the
dangerous possibility of
infection.
The area around a break swells
and discolors, but some fractures
can be detected only by X-ray.
The weakened bones of the
elderly are especially susceptible
to fractures.
Common Types of Fractures
Repair of Bone Fractures
 Hematoma (blood-filled swelling) is
formed
 Break is splinted by fibrocartilage to
form a callus
 Fibrocartilage callus is replaced by a
bony callus
 Bony callus is remodeled to form a
permanent patch
Stages in the Healing of a Bone
Fracture
Diseases and Conditions
of the Skeletal System
Arthritis
Bursitis
 Inflammation of the Bursa (fluid filled sac
surrounding the joint).
A bursa can become inflamed from injury, infection
(rare in the shoulder), or due to an underlying
rheumatic condition.
Bursitis is typically identified by localized pain or
swelling, tenderness, and pain with motion of the
tissues in the affected area.
Tendonitis
Sometimes the tendons become inflamed for a
variety of reasons, and the action of pulling the
muscle becomes irritating. If the normal smooth
gliding motion of your tendon is impaired, the
tendon will become inflamed and movement will
become painful. This is called tendonitis, and
literally means inflammation of the tendon.
The most common cause of tendonitis is overuse.
Carpal Tunnel Syndrome
Any condition that causes swelling or a change in position
of the tissue within the carpal tunnel can squeeze and
irritate the median nerve. Irritation of the median nerve in
this manner causes tingling and numbness of the thumb,
index, and the middle fingers, a condition known as
"carpal tunnel syndrome."
Osteoporosis
Osteoporosis is a term that means "porous bones."
Skeletal disease affecting women & men.
 Osteoporosis is a condition in which bones have lost
minerals especially calcium ﾑ making them weaker,
more brittle, and susceptible to fractures (broken
bones).
Any bone in the body can be affected by
osteoporosis, but the most common places where
fractures occur are the back (spine), hips, and wrists.
Scoliosis
Scoliosis is an abnormal curvature of the spine. If
your child has scoliosis, the view from behind may
reveal one or more abnormal curves.Scoliosis runs
in families, but doctors often don't know the cause.
More girls than boys have severe scoliosis. Adult
scoliosis may be a worsening of a condition that
began in childhood, but wasn't diagnosed or
treated. In other cases, scoliosis may result from a
degenerative joint condition in the spine.
Kyphosis
With kyphosis, your spine may look normal or you
may develop a hump. Kyphosis can occur as a result
of developmental problems; degenerative diseases,
such as arthritis of the spine; osteoporosis with
compression fractures of the vertebrae; or trauma to
the spine. It can affect children, adolescents and
adults.
Lordosis
A normal spine, when viewed from behind appears
straight. However, a spine affected by lordosis shows
evidence of a curvature of the back bones (vertebrae) in
the lower back area, giving the child a "swayback"
appearance.
Rickets
Rickets is the softening and weakening of bones in
children, usually because of an extreme and prolonged
vitamin D deficiency.
Some skeletal deformities caused by rickets may need
corrective surgery.
Bone Deformation
Rickets can result from insufficient
vitamin D in the diet or from
insufficient amounts of ultraviolet
radiation from the sun.
It can lead to skeletal deformation,
such as vertebral or leg curvature.
Acromegaly
Acromegaly is a serious condition that occurs when the
body produces too much of the hormones that control
growth. ･ The hormone most often affected is called
growth hormone, or GH. It ﾊ is produced by the
pituitary gland, a tiny organ at the base of the brain. ･･
Growth hormone ﾊ promotes growth of bone, cartilage,
muscle, organs, and other tissues. ･･ When there is too
much growth hormone in the body, these tissues grow
larger than normal. This excessive growth can cause
serious disease and even premature death.
Spina Bifida
Spina bifida is a birth defect that involves the
incomplete development of the spinal cord or its
coverings. The term spina bifida comes from Latin
and literally means "split" or "open" spine.Spina
bifida occurs at the end of the first month of
pregnancy when the two sides of the ﾊ embryo's
spine fail to join together, leaving an open area. In
some cases, the spinal cord or other membranes
may push through this opening in the back. The
condition usually is ﾊ detected before a baby is
born and treated right away.
Talipes Equinovarus- “Clubfoot”
Clubfoot is a deformity of the whole foot that is
present at birth. There are several types of clubfoot
that are jointly known as 'talipes', as the deformity is
mostly in the talus (a bone in the ankle). The most
common of the talipes is what is known as "talipes
equino varus" - it is so common that the word clubfoot
is commonly used to refer to this. In talipes equino
varus, the child is born with the foot pointing down
and twisted inwards at the ankle.
Sarcoma
Osteosarcoma-The most common type of bone cancer. It
arises in bone and is most commonly found in children
and adolescents but a rare form occurs in adults,
particularly in patients who have been cured of other
cancers with radiation therapy.
Myeloma
Multiple myeloma is a cancer in which abnormal cells collect
in the bone marrow and form tumors. Sometimes these
abnormal cells (called myeloma cells) collect in only one bone
and form a single tumor known as a plasmacytoma. However,
in most cases, the myeloma cells collect in many bones,
forming several tumors and causing other problems. When this
happens, the disease is called multiple myeloma.
Leukemia
Leukemia is cancer of the blood cells. It starts in the bone
marrow, the soft tissue inside most bones. Bone marrow is
where blood cells are made.When you are healthy, your
bone marrow makes: ･White blood cells, which help your
body fight infection. ･Red blood cells, which carry oxygen
to all parts of your body. ･Platelets, which help your blood
clot.When you have leukemia, the bone marrow starts to
make a lot of abnormal white blood cells, called leukemia
cells. They don't do the work of normal white blood cells,
they grow faster than normal cells, and they don't stop
growing when they should.
Bone Marrow Biopsy