INTRODUCTION TO

NEUROANATOMY

FERNANDO J. PERALDO, MD, MPH, DPSAi

 OVERVIEW OF THE NERVOUS SYSTEM

• The Nervous System has three specific functions:

• Sensory Input - Sensory receptors present in the skin and organs respond to external & internal
stimuli by generating nerve impulses that to the central nervous system
• Integration - The brain and spinal cord of the Central Nervous System combine and sum up all
the data received from the body and send out nerve impulses.
• Motor Output - The nerve impulses from the Central Nervous System go to the effectors
(muscles and glands). Muscle contractions and gland secretions are responses to stimuli received
by sensory receptors.
 TWO MAIN DIVISIONS OF THE
NERVOUS SYSTEM

• Central Nervous System (CNS)

• Peripheral Nervous System (PNS)
 CENTRAL NERVOUS SYSTEM

• consists of the spinal cord and brain.

• The spinal cord connect to the brain via the brainstem which is
situated at the base of the brain. This is composed of the medulla,
pons, and mid-brain. It is in the brainstem that discrete collections of
nuclei are situated for the formation of 10 of the 12 cranial nerves.
The brainstem and the cerebellum.
 CEREBRAL HEMISPHERES OF THE BRAIN

• Occipital
• Parietal
• Temporal (medial part of which are a series of structures including the
Hippocampus)
• Frontal
• Right and left divided by deep medial longitudinal fissures
• The surface is wrinkled by the presence of eminences called GYRI, and furrows
called SULCI or FISSURES
 The outwardly rounded ridges of cortex are
GYRI (singular GYRUS)
The grooves between the gyri are SULCI (singular SULCUS)
 The two main sulci are also known as fissures. These are the central sulcus (fissure)
between the frontal and parietal lobes, and the lateral sulcus (fissure) between the frontal
and temporal lobes
Most of the gyri and sulci have individual names but for now we only need to
remember the central and lateral sulci.
Inside the lateral fissure there is a hidden area of cortex, the
insula or ‘Island of Reil’.
 Before we can investigate the interior of the brain by cutting it
up we need to define the planes of the brain that we will cut
(section) in.

The coronal plane is

also known as the
frontal plane

Going to a higher horizontal (axial) plane is going rostral. Going down towards the
spinal cord and cauda equina is going caudal.
Recall that the main bones of the cranium are the frontal, parietal, occipital and
temporal.
The forebrain (cerebrum) can be divided into lobes that rest in the
corresponding cranial fossa. The frontal lobe lies under the frontal bone
in the anterior cranial fossa, the temporal lobe lies under the temporal
bone in the middle cranial fossa and the occipital lobe lies under the
occipital bone in the posterior cranial fossa, along with the cerebellum.
The parietal lobe lies under the parietal bone.

The cerebellum
(little brain) lies
below the occipital
lobe. It has much
thinner gyri than the
cerebrum
This is a brain cut in the frontal plane. Unstained brain tissue shows up as grey
(actually pinky-grey) and white matter
Staining the brain tissue is essential to differentiate structures. In
this stain cell bodies are stained blue. Thus the cortex can be
seen to contain large numbers of nerve cell bodies
Grey matter = cell bodies & processes
White matter = axons
 CEREBRAL CORTEX

• The outer layer of the cerebral hemisphere

• This is inter-connected via pathways that run sub-cortically. It is these
connections as well as the connections from the cerebral cortex to the brainstem,
spinal cord and nuclei deep within the cerebral hemisphere that form the white
matter of the cerebral hemisphere.
• The deep nuclei include structures such as the basal ganglia and the thalamus.
The corpus callosum is the most important landmark in the brain. It is a
bridge of axons that joins the two hemispheres and allows communication
between them.

Corpus Callosum
The corpus callosum is very easy to identify in
the mid-sagittal plane (below).
Corpus callosum is easy to see on an MRI
Underneath the anterior part of the corpus callosum we can see the lateral
ventricles
Note that the corpus callosum folds back on itself rostrally. This
region ends in the anterior commissure

‘Folded back’
region

Anterior
commissure
 BRAINSTEM
• made up of the part of the brain that begins at the foramen magnum.
• extends to the cerebral peduncles and thalamus.
• Consists of: Medulla, Pons, Midbrain
• It contains the following:
Nuclei for 10 of 12 pairs of cranial nerves (not olfactory or optic nerves)
Apparatus for controling eye movements.(3rd, 4th, 6th cranial nerves)
Monoaminergic nuclei that project widely in the CNS
Vital respiration and cardiovascular centers
Autonomic centers
Areas important for consciousness
Ascending and descending pathways, linking spinal cord to brain.
 THE CEREBELLUM

• found below the tentorial membrane in the posterior fossa. It

is connected to the brainstem by 3 cerebellar peduncles.
• Its primary role is that of coordination and learning of
movements.
 CEREBELLUM
• Three main systems.
• Spinocerebellum - involved in the control of axial musculature and
posture.
• Pontocerebellum - coordination and planning of intended limb
movement.
• Vestibulocerebellum - involved in posture and eye movements.
• compares the intended movement originating from the motor cortex areas with the
actual movement relayed back by the afferent systems and interneurons in the
spinal cord. It also gains input from the vestibular systems.
 CEREBELLUM
• Main Functions:
• To act as a comparator: comparing descending supraspinal signals with ascending afferent feedback. If
there is any discrepancy, this is then fine tuned to produce the actual movement desired via descending
pathways. This helps to achieve smoothness and accuracy in movement.
• To act as a timing device: it converts descending motor signals into a sequence of motor activation.
This helps the movement achieve smoothness and coordination, maintaining posture and balance.
(receiving input from the vestibular system).
• Initiating and Storing Movement: has ability to store and update motor information. there is a
significant role played in accurate learned movement. This is due to a modifiable synapse at the purkinje
cell.
 MENINGES
• The CNS is enclosed within the skull and vertebral column. These
structures are separated by a series of membranes known as the
Meninges. The Pia Mater is separated from the delicate arachnoid
membrane by the subarachnoid space, which is then in turn
separated from the Dura mater by the Sub-dural space.
NEURONS
 TYPES OF NEURONS
• According to size and shape of their processes
Multipolar – more than 2 cell processes
one axon, multiple dendrites
Bipolar – one dendrite and one axon
Pseudounipolar – single process close to the
perikaryon and divides into
2 branches, one extending to
the peripheral ending, the
other toward the CNS
 TYPES OF NEURONS
• According to their functional role
Motor (efferent) neurons – control
effector organs such as muscle
fibers, exocrine, and endocrine
glands
Sensory (afferent) neurons – reception of
sensory stimuli from the environment and
from within the body
Three parts
of a neuron:
-
dendrites
- cell body/

perikaryon
- axon
 PARTS OF THE NEURON
Cell body - contains the nucleus and surrounding cytoplasm.
- It is the focus of the cells metabolic processes, housing
the mitochondria, golgi apparatus and peroxisomes.
Dendrites - part of the receptive surface of the neuron
- are neuronal processes that taper from the cell body
outwards.
- produce many branches and transmit information
towards the cell body from synapses on the dendritic
tree.
- primary role is to increase the surface area for synapse
formation, allowing a great number of synapses to integrate
together
 PARTS OF THE NEURON

• Axon - the "transmitting" process of the neurons

- 1 axon per neuron
- originates at the axon hillock conducting information away
from the cell body towards the nerve terminal and synapses.
- can branch to produce several processes.
- the initial segment of the axon, as it emerges from the cell
body, is the most excitable part of the neuron. It has a high
density of sodium channels at this point. Therefore, it is at this
point that the action potential is generated.
 NEURON CELL MEMBRANE
• Made up of a lipid bilayer
• contains proteins that form ion channels, others form receptors to certain
chemicals that are released by neurons. Others act as ion pumps, moving ions
across the membrane. e.g Na+ - K+ exchange pump.
• Axolemma - axonal surface membrane
• Axoplasm - contained within the neurons
 MYELIN SHEATH
• Surround an axon.
• alters the conducting properties of the axon, allowing for fast action potential
propagation, while the strength of the signal is maintained.
• Nodes of Ranvier - gaps in the sheath which contain many ion channels.
• surrounds the axon from the origin near the cell body along the length of the axon to
the terminal, before the axon branches.
• The myelin sheath is formed by Schwann cells in the PNS and Oligodendrocytes in
the CNS.
 SYNAPSES
• morphologically
specialised contacts
between a bouton
formed by one neurone,
the presynaptic neurone,
and the cell surface of
another neurone,
the postsynaptic neurone.
 SYNAPSE

• the junction where the neuron meets another cell.

• in the CNS this will be another neuron, however in the PNS this may
be a muscle cell, glandular cell or other organs.
 SYNAPSES

• Convert electrical signal from presynaptic cell into a chemical signal in the post
synaptic cell
• Transmit information by releasing chemical messengers
(neurotransmitters/neuromodulators)
• Formed by an axon terminal that delivers the signal and a region on the surface
of another cell where a new signal is generated and a thin intercellular space
called synaptic cleft
 TRANSMITTERS

• Neurotransmitters either excite or inhibit the postsynaptic neurone

• L-glutamate - most prominent excitatory transmitter in the CNS
• GABA (gamma-amino butyric acid) - most prominent inhibitory transmitter in
the CNS is GABA (gamma-amino butyric acid)
SUPPORT CELLS OF THE NERVOUS TISSUE
• Schwann cells
• Support cells in peripheral
nerves; form the myelin
around myelinated
peripheral axons.
• also envelop unmyelinated
axons, but without the dense
membrane wrapping which
characterizes myelin.
 SUPPORT CELLS OF THE NERVOUS TISSUE
• satellite cells
- Support cells in peripheral
ganglia

- cellsimmediately surrounding
the ganglion cells as one
flattened layer
SUPPORT CELLS OF THE NERVOUS TISSUE
• Glial cells
- most numerous cells within
the central nervous system
-10 times more abundant in
mammalian brain than neurons
- surround both cell bodies and
their axonal and dendrite
processes
- non-neuronal, supporting cells,
neuroglia.
 NEUROGLIAL CELLS: 4 MAIN CLASSES OF
NEUROGLIAL CELLS WITHIN THE CNS.
• Astrocytes

- Small stellate cells found throughout CNS.

- Form structural and supporting framework for neuronal cells
and capillaries.
- maintain integrity of blood brain barrier (BBB).
- store and release some neurotransmitters.
- disperse excess ions.
- Important role in development of NS and may have a role in injury
recovery.
- have a role in presenting antigen to the immune system when CNS
and BBB damaged.
- the scar-forming cells of the CNS.
 NEUROGLIAL CELLS: 4 MAIN CLASSES OF
NEUROGLIAL CELLS WITHIN THE CNS.

• Oligodendrocytes: Responsible for myelination of CNS neurons. Large numbers

in the white matter. Each Olig. forms myelin for 3-50 fibres, and many others
surround fibres without forming sheaths. Clinical disorders of these cells cause
central demyelination in conditions such as multiple sclerosis.
sclerosis
 NEUROGLIAL CELLS: 4 MAIN CLASSES OF
NEUROGLIAL CELLS WITHIN THE CNS.

• Ependymal cells - Important for enabling movement of cerebrospinal fluid (CSF)

as well as interacting with with astrocytes to form a barrier separating the
ventricles and CSF from neuronal environment.
- line the central canal in the spinal cord.
Microglial Cells - found throughout white and grey matter of the CNS.
- phagocytic in nature. Mediate immune responses
within the CNS.
 SUPPORT CELLS OF THE NERVOUS TISSUE
Microglia
- small elongated cell
with short irregular
processes
- phagocytic cells that represent
- the mononuclear phagocytic
system in nerve tissue
- involved in inflammation and
repair in the adult CNS and
release neutral proteases and
oxidative radicals
- mesodermal origin, derived from
the cell line which also gives rise
to monocytes, i.e. macrophage
precursors which circulate in the blood
stream
PERIPHERAL NERVOUS SYSTEM (PNS)
• comprises all nervous tissue outside the brain and spinal cord
• It consists of groups of neurons (ganglion cells), called
ganglia, feltworks of nerve fibers, called plexuses, and
bundles of parallel nerve fibers that form the nerves and
nerve roots.
• Nerve fibers, which originate from neurons within the CNS
and pass out of the CNS in cranial and spinal nerves, are
called efferent or motor fibers. Nerve fibres which originate
from nerve cells outside the CNS but enter the CNS by way
of the cranial or spinal nerves are called afferent or sensory
nerve fibres.
 PERIPHERAL NERVOUS SYSTEM

1. Afferent Division - Sends information from the PNS to the CNS

2. Efferent Division - Send information from the CNS to the PNS

 PERIPHERAL NERVOUS SYSTEM
• Afferent Division
1. Visceral afferents (subconscious input) –
Pressure, O2, temperature, etc.
2. Sensory afferents (conscious input)
- Somatic sensation - Somesthetic sensation from
skin, Proprioception from muscle joints, skin and
inner ear
- Special senses - Vision, hearing, taste and smell
• Efferent Division
1. Autonomic Nervous System - Cardiac muscle, smooth muscle,
most exocrine glands, some endocrine glands, adipose tissue
2. Somatic Nervous system • Skeletal muscle
 THE ANS AND
VISCERAL
SENSORY NEURONS

Figure 15.1
 PERIPHERAL NERVES

• Afferent/sensory fibers enter the spinal cord via the dorsal roots,
while efferent, motor fibers leave the spinal cord via the ventral roots.
• Dorsal and ventral roots merge to form the spinal nerves, which
consequently contain both sensory and motor fibres
 PERIPHERAL NERVES
• One nerve fiber consists of an axon and its nerve
sheath, each axon surrounded by a sheath of
Schwann cells.
• The axons are housed within infoldings of the
Schwann cell cytoplasm and cell membrane, the
mesaxon
 PERIPHERAL NERVES

• Function of the myelin sheath formed by the Schwann cell

- insulates the axon
- improves its ability to conduct
- provides the basis for the fast saltatory
transmission of impulses
node of Ranvier - the place along the course of
the axon where two myelin
segments abut.
 Peripheral Nerves

In the case of myelinated nerve

fibres, Schwann cells form a
sheath around one axon and
surround this axon with several
double layers (up to hundreds)
of cell membrane.
 PERIPHERAL NERVES

GANGLIA

- aggregations of nerve cells (ganglion cells)

outside the CNS
- surrounded by a connective tissue capsule,
continuous with the dorsal root epi- and
perineurium.
- Individual ganglion cells are surrounded by a
layer of flattened satellite cells
 PERIPHERAL NERVES

GANGLIA
- Neurons in cranial nerve and dorsal root ganglia are pseudounipolar.
- The arms of the T represent branches of the neurite connecting the
ganglion cell with the CNS (central branch) and the periphery
(peripheral branch). Both branches function as one actively
conducting axon, which transmits information from the periphery to
the CNS
- The stem is connected to the perikaryon of the ganglion cell and is
the only process originating from it.
- Ganglion cells in dorsal root ganglia do not receive synapses. Their
function is the trophic support of their neurites.
Dorsal Root Ganglion
- Ganglion cells several times
larger than other cells in the
ganglia.
- the perikaryon is very large
and surrounds a large and
light nucleus.
- surrounded by one flattened
layer of satellite cells.
- Ganglion cells are with other
parts of the nervous system
and with the peripheral tissues
which they innervate.
- nerve fibers will be visible
close to or within the ganglion.
 Autonomic Ganglion
- contain synapses, and the ganglion
cells do have dendrites
- They receive synapses from the
first neurone of the two-neurone
chain, which characterises most
of the efferent connections of the
autonomic nervous system
The second neurone is the
ganglion cell itself.
Some are embedded within
the walls of the organs which
they innervate (intramural ganglia).
End of lecture
Thank you
