ESC111

Lecture 12
Introduction to Mineralogy 3

ESC111 - 2024
 Silicates
• The silicates are the largest group of minerals, the most interesting and the
most complicated
• Approximately 30% of all minerals are silicates, and some geologists
estimate that 90% of the earth’s crust is made up of silicates
• They are composed largely of silicon and oxygen, with the addition of
ions such as Al, Mg, Fe and Ca
• Some important rock forming silicates includes the feldspars, quartz,
olivine, the pyroxenes, garnets, micas, and the amphiboles
ESC111 - 2024
 Structure of the Silicate Mineral Class
• The silicates are fairly widespread and account for over
80 percent of the minerals at the Earth’s surface.
• They are classified in the way in which the basic
tetrahedron unit [SiO4]4- is linked with the
neighbouring ions.
• The central silicon ion has a +4 charge while each
oxygen carries a -2 charge.
• The variety of silicate minerals is produced by the
(SiO4)4-tetrahedralinking to self-similar units by sharing
one, two, three, or all four corner oxygens of the
tetrahedron.
• Because the SiO4 tetrahedron is not electronically
neutral it tends to combine with other elements to make
a neutral species
ESC111 - 2024
 Silicon-Oxygen Tetrahedron

ESC111 - 2024
 Structure of the Silicate Mineral Class
• The structures of these silicates can therefore form:
• Single units
• Double units
• Sheets
• Chains
• Rings
• Framework structures
• The different ways in which the tetrahedra combine is what makes the silicate class the
largest and most complicated group of minerals
ESC111 - 2024
 The Six Silicate Sub-
classes
• Nesosilicates: isolated, single
tetrahedron
• Sorosilicates: double tetrahedra
• Inosilicates: single or double chains
• Cyclosilicates: rings
• Phyllosilicates: sheets
• Tectosilicates: framework
ESC111 - 2024
ESC111 - 2024
 Nesosilicates
• Nesosilicates, with isolated
tetrahedral [SiO4]4- groups,
interconnected by a cation which
is not silicon Mg2+
• As a rule they have a compact
habit and a high degree of [SiO4]4-
hardness, a high specific gravity
and a high refractive index, e.g.
forsterite(an olivine) Fe2+
ESC111 - 2024
 Sorosilicates
• Two tetrahedra joined by a vertex
(sharing one Oxygen) forming a pair
[Si2O7]6-
• These groups are coordinated by
cations that are not silicon by the three
free vertices on the one tetrahedron
and three opposite vertices on the
other, e.g. epidote
ESC111 - 2024
 Cyclosilicates
• Tetrahedra which are joined together
into rings with three, four or six elements
• Each tetrahedron shares two Oxygen
atoms with other tetrahedra
• They are characterized by prismatic,
trigonal, tetragonal and hexagonal habits,
the most common being those with rings
of six tetrahedra, e.g. beryl
ESC111 - 2024
 Inosilicates
• Tetrahedra joined together in indefinite chains.
• Each tetrahedra shares an Oxygen atom with the
one above and below it
• The most common cases are single open chains,
typical of the pyroxene group, or double or closed
chains, typical of the amphibole group.
• Needle-like(acicular) or fibrous habits are
predominant, and as a rule there is also a
characteristic, easy cleavage parallel to the
elongation.
ESC111 - 2024 Cleavage
 Phyllosilicates
• The basic structure of the phyllosilicates is based on
interconnected six member rings of SiO4-4 tetrahedra that
extend outward in infinite sheets.
• Three out of the 4 oxygens from each tetrahedra are shared
with other tetrahedra. This leads to a basic structural unit of
Si2O5-2 Cations
along
• Between the sheets are bonds made only by the oxygens at which
the fourth vertex, all oriented in the same direction; the cleavage
result is a lamellar (leaved) habit with excellent cleavage occurs
parallel to the base; low specific gravity and hardness, e.g.
the mica group
ESC111 - 2024
 Tectosilicates
• The tetrahedra of which are joined together by all four vertices,
producing indefinite cages of frameworks with complex structures.
(every oxygen atom is shared with another tetrahedra)
• In the pure state of only silicon and oxygen the mineral is quartz
(SiO2).
• But the aluminium (Al) ion can easily substitute for the silicon ion
in the tetrahedra. In other subclasses this occurs to a limited extent
but in the tectosilicates it is a major basis of the varying structures.
• While the tetrahedron is nearly the same with aluminum at its centre,
the charge is now a negative five (-5) instead of the normal negative
four (-4). Since the charge in a crystal must be balanced, additional
cations are needed in the structure and this is the main reason for the
great variations within this subclass.

ESC111 - 2024
 Some important
rock-forming minerals

ESC111 - 2024
 Olivine
• Olivine has the chemical composition (Mg,
Fe)2SiO4.
• Fe and Mg can substitute for each other in
the crystal lattice of olivine.
• Two end-members present:
• Fe-rich end-member called Fayalite (Fe2SiO4),
and a
• Mg-rich end-member termed Forsterite
(Mg2SiO4)
ESC111 - 2024
 Feldspars: Plagioclase
• Plagioclase feldspar is one of two groups of
feldspars with two prominent end-members
due to both Ca and Na, and Al and Si
substituting for each other in the mineral
lattice.
• The Ca, Al-rich end member is called
anorthite(CaAl2Si2O8), whereas the Na, Si-
rich end-member is termed albite(NaAlSi3O8).
• Intermediate compositions exist between
these two end-members, an example of which
is called oligoclase. Albite (Na rich) to Anorthite (Ca-rich)
ESC111 - 2024
 Feldspars: Alkali Feldspars
• The alkali feldspars (named after the dominant
alkali elements Na and K) are the other
prominent group of feldspars, with a general
formula (K, Na)AlSi3O8 where K and Na
substitute for each other in the mineral lattice.
• Two end-members are present, the K-rich
variety (KAlSi3O8) is termed orthoclase
(microcline is similar but more stable at lower
temperatures), whereas the Na-rich end-
member is termed albite(NaAlSi3O8);
intermediate compositions are termed
anorthoclase.

ESC111 - 2024
 Rock-forming Minerals
• These include the most common minerals that constitute the rocks of the earth’s crust
• They can be classified as:
• Sialic/Felsic Minerals: Si-Al rich minerals, generally light coloured to colourless with low
densities, includes quartz, feldspars and light coloured micas such as muscovite
• Mafic Minerals: Mg-Fe rich minerals, generally dark coloured with higher densities, includes
olivine, amphiboles (hornblende), pyroxenes (augite) and biotite
• Clay Minerals: Formed from weathering or breakdown of silicate minerals, and are common in
shale, mudstone and soil, includes minerals such as kaolinite, illite, montmorillonite
• Non-silicate Minerals: These are common rock-forming minerals in the earth’s crust not belonging
to the silicate group which includes calcite, dolomite, halite and gypsum
ESC111 - 2024
 Ore Minerals
•Argentite •Hematite
• Important economically, •Barite •Ilmenite
from which metals can •Beryl •Magnetite
be extracted relatively •Bornite •Molybdenite
•Cassiterite •Pentlandite
cheaply •Chalcocite •Platinum
•Chalcopyrite •Scheelite
• The majority of these •Chromite •Sphalerite
are native elements, •Cinnabar •Uraninite
oxides and sulphides •Cobaltite •Wolframite
•Columbite •etc.
•Galena
•Gold
ESC111 - 2024
 South Africa’s mineral reserves
• South Africa has the world’s largest
reserves of:
• Platinum-group minerals (87%)
• Manganese (80%)
• Chromium (72%)
• Gold (40%)
• In addition, SA also has significant
reserves of titanium, vanadium,
zirconium, vermiculite and fluorspar
http://www.scielo.org.za/scielo.php?script=sci_arttext&pid=S2225-62532011000700011#fig02
ESC111 - 2024
 Mineral Association in Rocks
• Some minerals are commonly associated in certain rocks or mineral deposits,
and other minerals are rarely found together.
• Knowledge of common mineral associations in a variety of rock types can aid
in making educated guesses as to the possible identity of an unknown mineral.
In addition, a knowledge of associations may suggest the presence of a mineral
that might otherwise be overlooked.
• The following lists show minerals likely to be found in a variety of common
rocks. The lists are organized so that the major minerals come first, followed by
accessory or less common minerals.
ESC111 - 2024
ESC111 - 2024