AERODYNAMICS

Contents
1. Aerodynamics: Some Introductory Thoughts
2. Aerodynamics: Some Fundamental Principles
and Equations
3. Fundamentals of Inviscid, Incompressible Flow
4. Incompressible Flows Over Airfoils
5. Incompressible Flows Over Finite Wings
Chap.1

Aerodynamics: Some Introductory

Thoughts
OUTLINE

Classification and practical objectives

Some fundamental aerodynamic variables
Aerodynamic forces and moments
Center of pressure
Dimensional analysis
Flow similarity
Types of flow
Classification and practical objectives
Distinction between Solid and Fluid
Under application of shear force
 Solid: finite deformation
 Fluid: continuously increasing deformation
Classification of fluid dynamics
 Hydrodynamics: flow of liquids
 Gas dynamics: flow of gases
 Aerodynamics: flow of air
Practical objectives of aerodynamics
The prediction of forces and moments on, and heat
transfer to, bodies moving through a fluid (usually air).
Determination of flows moving internally through
ducts. (ex. Flow properties inside rocket and air-
breathing jet engines)
Some fundamental aerodynamic variables
Pressure:
 dF 
p  lim , dA  0
 dA 
Density:
 dm 
  lim , dv  0
 dv 
Temperature, T
Flow velocity, V
Aerodynamic forces and moments
Aerodynamic forces and moments are due to
Pressure distribution
Shear stress distribution
 Nomenclature
R  resultant force
L  lift
D  drag
N  normal force
A  Axial force
Relation between L,D and N,A
L  N cos   A sin 
D  N sin   A cos 

Representation of N´, A´and M´LE in terms of

pressure p and shear stress 
Primes denote force per unit span
Subscript ‘u’ denote upper surface while ‘l’ denote
lower surface
 TE TE
N    ( pu cos   u sin )dsu   ( pl cos   l sin )dsl
'
LE LE
TE TE
A   (  p u sin    u cos )ds u   ( p l sin    l cos )ds l
'
LE LE
TE
M 'LE   [( p u cos    u sin ) x  ( p u sin    u cos ) y]ds u 
LE
TE
LE [( p l cos    l sin )x  ( p l sin    l cos )y]ds l
Dimensionless force and moment coefficient
S = reference area ( planform area for wing)
l = reference length (chord length for wing)
1
Dynamic pressure q  V2
2
Lift coefficient L
CL 
q S
D
Drag coefficient CD 
q S
N
Normal force coefficient CN 
q S
Axial force coefficient A
CA 
q S
Moment coefficient M
CM 
q Sl
Center of pressure
Definition
The point on the body about which the
aerodynamic moment is zero.
Location of center of pressure
'
'
M LE , if  is small  M LE
xcp   xcp   '
N' L
Dimensional analysis

Factors affecting aerodynamic force R

Free stream velocity V
Free stream density 
Viscosity of the fluid 
The size of the body (usually represented by the
chord length c)
The compressibility of the fluid a
R=f(, V, c, , a). Dimensional analysis can
reduce the number of independent parameters
affecting R, such that can save the cost of wind
tunnel test.
Buckingham pi theorem
Fundamental dimensions :
 m = dimension of mass
 l = dimension of length

 t = dimension of time

Variables and their dimensions

R   mlt 2    ml 3 V   lt 1

c  l     ml 1t 1 a   lt 1
 products
Π1  f 3 ( ,V , c, R)
Π 2  f 4 ( ,V , c,   )
Π 3  f 5 ( ,V , c, a )
For 1, assume that
Π1  d Vb c e R
Π1   (ml 3 ) d (lt 1 )b (l )e (mlt 2 )
Equating the exponents sum of m to be zero, and
similarly for l and t, we can obtain simultaneous
equations of b, d, e, solving these equations leads to
b = -2, d = -1, e = -2.
Results form 1
1  2  2 R
Π1  R V c
  
V2 c 2
R R
 Π1    CR
1 V2 S q S
2
Similarly for 2

V c
Π2   Re

Re, Reynolds number, is a measure of the ratio of
inertial forces to viscous forces in a flow.
For 3
V
Π3   M
a
M, Mach number, is the ratio of the flow velocity to
the speed of sound.
CR (also for CL, CD, CM) is function of Re and M.
C R  f 6 (Re, M  )
Re and M are called similarity parameters.
Flow similarity
Definition of dynamically similar for two
different flows
The streamline patterns are geometrically similar.
The distributions of V/V, p/p, etc. are the same
when plotted against common non-dimensional
coordinates.
The force coefficients are the same.
Criteria
The bodies and any other solid boundaries are
geometrically similar.
Same similarity parameters (Re and M).
 Example
Assume   T ,a  T
2 T 4T1
 2  2
1 T1 T1
a2 T
 2 2
a1 T1
V2 2V1 V1
 M2     M1
a2 2a1 a1
 2V2 d 2 (1 4)(2V1 )(4d1 )
 Re 2  
2 21
1V1d1
  Re1 Similar flows
1
Types of flow
Inviscid vs. viscous flow
Inviscid: assume no friction, thermal conduction
and diffusion.
viscous: consider effects of friction, thermal
conduction and diffusion.
Incompressible vs. compressible
Incompressible: density  is constant.
Compressible: density  is variable.
Mach number regimes
Subsonic flow: M<1 everywhere
Transonic flow: mixed regions where M<1 and M>1
Supersonic flow: M>1 everywhere
Hypersonic flow: very high supersonic speeds, usually
M>5.
Chap.2

Aerodynamics: Some
Fundamental Principles and
Equations
OUTLINE
Review of vector relations
Control volumes and fluid elements
Continuity equation
Momentum equation
Pathlines and streamlines
Angular velocity, vorticity and circulation
Stream function and velocity potential
Review of vector relations
Vector algebra
Scalar product: A  B  A B cos 
Vector product: A  B  ( A B sin )e  G
Orthogonal coordinate systems
Cartesian coordinate system

A  Ax i  Ay j  Az k
B  Bx i  B y j  Bz k
A  B  Ax Bx  Ay B y  Az Bz
i j k
A  B  Ax Ay Az
Bx By Bz
Cylindrical coordinate system

A  Ar e r  Ae   Az e z
B  Br e r  Be   Bz e z
A  B  Ar Br  A B  Az Bz
er e ez
A  B  Ar A Az
Br B Bz
Spherical coordinate
system
A  Ar e r  Ae   Ae 
B  Br e r  Be   Be 
A  B  Ar Br  A B  A B
er e e
A  B  Ar A A
Br B B
Gradient of a scalar field
Definition of gradient of a scalar p
 Its magnitude is the maximum rate of change of p per unit

length.
 Its direction is the maximum rate of change of p.

Isoline: a line of constant p values

Gradient line: a line along which p is tangent at
every point. dp
Directional derivative:  p  n
ds
where n is the unit vector in the s direction.
Expression for p in Cartesian coordinate system
p p p
p  i j k
x y z
Divergence of a vector field
If V is the velocity of a flow, the divergence of V will
be the time rate of volume change per unit volume.
Expression for divergence of V, V, in Cartesian
coordinate system

V  Vx i  V y j  Vz k
Vx V y Vz
V   
x y z
Curl of a vector field
The angular velocity  of a fluid element translating
along a streamline is equal to one-half of the curl of
V, denoted by V.
Expression for curl of V in Cartesian coordinate
system
V  Vx i  V y j  Vz k
i j k
  
V 
x y z
Vx Vy Vz
Relations between line, surface and volume
integrals
Stokes’ theorem

 A  ds   (  A)  dS
c s
Divergence theorem

 A  dS   (  A)dV
s V
Gradient theorem

 pdS   pdV

s V
Control volumes and fluid elements
Control volume Fluid element
approach approach
Continuity equation
Fixed control volume
Mass flow equation
m  Vn A
Continuity equation
in a finite space

 dV   V  dS  0
t V S
Continuity equation
at a point

   ( V )  0
t
Momentum equation
Fixed control volume
Original form is Newton’s second law
Momentum equation in integral form

 VdV   ( V  dS )V    pdS   fdV  Fviscous
t V S S V
f is body force; Fviscous is viscous force on control surface
X-component of the momentum equation in
differential form (similar form for y- and z-
component).
 ( u ) p
   ( uV )    f x  ( Fx )viscous
t x
Navier-Stokes equations
The momentum equations for a viscous flow.
Euler equations
The momentum equations for a steady inviscid
flow.
p
  ( uV )  
x
p
  ( vV )  
y
p
  ( wV )  
z
Pathlines and streamlines
Pathline
Path of a fluid element.
Streamline
A curve whose tangent
at any point is in the
direction of the velocity
vector at that point.
For steady flow,
pathlines and
streamlines are
identical.
Streamline equation for steady flow
By definition, flow velocity V is parallel to directed
segment of the streamline ds, so dsxV=0
i j k
ds  V  dx dy dz  0
u v w
wdy  vdz  0
udz  wdx  0
vdx  udy  0 dy v
For two-dimensional flow 
dx u
Angular velocity, vorticity and circulation
Angular velocity and vorticity
As a fluid element translate along a streamline, it may
rotate as well as shape distorted.
Angular velocity 
1  w v   u w   v u  
ω    i     j    k 
2  y z   z x   x y  
Vorticity  is defined to be 2, also equal to xV.
If xV≠0, the flow is rotational, and ≠0.
If xV=0, the flow is irrotational, and =0.
Circulation Γ
Definition
   C V  ds
Relation with lift: if an airfoil
is generating lift, the
circulation taken around a
closed curve enclosing the
airfoil will be finite.
By Stokes’ theorem

   C V  ds    (  V )  dS
S
If the flow is irrotational (xV=0) everywhere with
the contour of integration, then Γ= 0.
Stream function and velocity potential
Stream function
For two-dimensional steady flow, a streamline
equation is given by setting the stream function
equal to a contant.
 ( x, y )  c
For incompressible flow

  
 
u ,v  
y x
Velocity potential
For an irrotational flow
  V  0    ( )  0
We can find a scalar function φ such that V is
given by the gradient of φ which is therefore called
velocity potential.
V  
  
u ,v  ,w 
x y z
Relation between  and φ
Equipotential lines (φ= constant) and streamlines
( = constant) are mutually prependicular.
Chap.3

Fundamentals of Inviscid,
Incompressible Flow
OUTLINE
 Bernoulli’s equation and its application
 Pressure coefficient
 Laplace’s equation for irrotational, incompressible
flow
 Elementary flows
 Combination of elementary flows
Bernoulli’s equation and its application
Bernoulli’s equation
Relation between pressure and velocity in an
inviscid, incompressible flow.
Equation form along a streamline
1
p  V 2  const.
2
If the flow is irrotational,
1
p  V 2  const.
2
throughout the flow
Flow in a duct
Continuity equation for quasi-one-dimensional flow
in a duct
1 A1V1   2 A2V2
For incompressible flow

A1V1  A2V2
The venturi and low-speed wind tunnel
In aerodynamic application, venturi can be used to
measure the velocity of inlet flow V1.
From Bernoulli’s equation:

2( p1  p2 )
V1 
[( A1 A2 ) 2  1]
A low-speed wind
tunnel is a large
venturi where the
airflow is driven by a
fan.
The test section flow
velocity can be
derived from
Bernoulli’s equation
2( p1  p2 )
V2 
[1  ( A2 A1 ) ]
2
Pitto tube
Stagnation point: a point
in a flow where V = 0.
(ex. Point B in the
figure.)
Stagnation pressure p0:
pressure at a stagnation
point, also called total
pressure.
To measure the flight 2( p0  p1 )
velocity of an airplane. V1 

Pressure coefficient
Pressure coefficient is defined as
p  p
Cp 
q
1
where q  V2
2
For incompressible flow
 Cp can be reduced to be in terms of velocity only.
2
V 
C p  1   
 V 
Laplace’s equation for irrotational, incompressible
flow
For incompressible flow
V  0
For irrotational flow ( is velocity potential)
V  
Laplace’s equation
  ()   2   0
The stream function  also satisfies Laplace’s
equation.
 2  0
Solution of Laplace’s equation
Solutions of Laplace’s equation are called harmonic
functions.
Superposition principle is applicable since Laplace’s
equation is linear.
A complicated flow pattern can be synthesized by
adding together a number of elementary flows.
Boundary contions
Infinity boundary conditions
 
u   V
x y
 
v  0
y x
Wall boundary conditions
(wall tangency conditions)
 
 0, 0
n s
Elementary flows
Uniform flow
A uniform flow is a physically
possible incompressible and
irrotational flow.
Boundary condition for 

 u  V
x

v0
y
Solution for 
  V x
Boundary condition for 

 u  V
y

 v  0
x
Solution for 

  V y
Source flow
Cylindrical coordinate
system is applied.
Incompressible at every
point except the origin.
Irrotational at every point.
Velocity field

Vr  , V  0
2r
where  is the source
strength, defined as the
volume flow rate per unit
length.
 is positive for a source flow, whereas negative for
a sink flow.
Solution for  and 

 ln r
2

 
2
Doublet flow
A pair of source-sink with
the same strength, while
the distance l between each
other tends to zero.
Stream function 
 
  lim (1   2 )  lim( d)
l 0
  l
2 l 0
  l
2
where =const. is the
strength of the doublet.
Solution for  and 
 sin 

2 r
 cos 

2 r
The direction of a doublet is designated by an
arrow draw form the sink to the source.
Vortex flow
A flow where all the
streamlines are concentric
circles, and the velocity
along any circular
streamline is constant.
Incompressible at every
point.
Irrotational at every point
except the origin.
Velocity field

Vr  0, V  
2r
where  is the circulation.
Solution for  and 

 
2

 ln r
2
Combination of elementary flows
Superposition of a uniform flow and a source
Stream function 

  V r sin   
2
Velocity field
1  
Vr   V cos  
r  2r

V    V sin 
r
Stagnation point

V cos   0 
2r   (r , )  ( 2V , )
V sin   0 


2
The streamline goes through the stagnation point
is described by =/2, shown as curve ABC .
Streamline ABC separates the fluid coming from
the free stream and the fluid emanating from the
source.
The entire region inside ABC could be replaced
with a solid body of the same shape.
Superposition of a uniform flow and a source-
sink pair
Stream function 

  V r sin   (1   2 )
2
Two stagnation points A and B are found by setting
V=0.
The stagnation streamline is given by =0, i.e.

  V r sin   (1   2 )  0
2
which is the equation of an oval, called Rankine
oval.
The region inside the oval can be replaced by a
solid body with the same shape.
Nonlifting flow over a circular cylinder
Superposition of a uniform flow and a doublet
Stream function 
 R2 
  V r sin 1  2 , where R 2  κ 2πV
 r 
Velocity field
1   R 2 
Vr   1  2 V cos 
r   r 
  R2 
V    1  2 V sin 
r  r 
The stagnation streamline is given by =0, i.e.
 R2 
  V r sin 1  2   0
 r 
The stagnation streamline includes the circle
described by r=R, and the entire horizontal axis
through points A and B.
We can replace the flow inside the circle by a solid
body. Consequently, a flow over a circular
cylindrical of radius R can be synthesized by this
superposition, where

R
2V
The pressure distribution is symmetric about both
axes. As a result, there is no net lift, as well as no
net drag which makes no sense in real world.
Chap.4

Incompressible Flow over

Airfoils
OUTLINE
Airfoil nomenclature and characteristics
The vortex sheet
The Kutta condition
Kelvin’s circulation theorem
Classical thin airfoil theory
The cambered airfoil
The vortex panel numerical method
Airfoil nomenclature and characteristics
Nomenclature
Characteristics
The vortex sheet
Vortex sheet with
strength =(s)
Velocity at P induced by a
small section of vortex
sheet of strength ds
ds
dV  
2r
For velocity potential (to
avoid vector addition as
for velocity)
ds
d   
2
The velocity potential at P
due to entire vortex sheet
1 b

2 a
ds

The circulation around the

vortex sheet
b
   ds
a

The local jump in tangential

  u1  u2 , dn  0
velocity across the vortex
sheet is equal to .
Calculate (s) such that the induced velocity field
when added to V will make the vortex sheet (hence
the airfoil surface) a streamline of the flow.
The resulting lift is given by Kutta-Joukowski
theorem
L  V 
Thin airfoil approximation
The Kutta condition
Statement of the Kutta condition
The value of  around the airfoil is such that the
flow leaves the trailing edge smoothly.
If the trailing edge angle is finite, then the trailing
edge is a stagnation point.
If the trailing edge is cusped, then the velocity
leaving the top and bottom surface at the trailing
edge are finite and equal.
Expression in terms of 
 (TE )  0
Kelvin’s circulation theorem
Statement of Kelvin’s circulation theorem
The time rate of change of circulation around a
closed curve consisting of the same fluid elements is
zero.
Classical thin airfoil theory
Goal
To calculate (s) such that the camber line becomes
a streamline.
Kutta condition (TE)=0 is satisfied.
Calculate  around the airfoil.
Calculate the lift via the Kutta-Joukowski theorem.
Approach
Place the vortex sheet on
the chord line, whereas
determine =(x) to make
camber line be a streamline.
Condition for camber line to
be a streamline

V ,n  w( s )  0
where w'(s) is the
component of velocity
normal to the camber line.
Expression of V,n
 1 dz 
V ,n  V sin   tan ( )
 dx 
For small 
sin   tan    , w( s )  w( x)
dz
V ,n  V (  )
dx
Expression for w(x)
c  ()d
w( x)   
0 2( x  )

Fundamental equation of
thin airfoil theory
1 c  (  ) d dz

2 0 x  
 V (  )
dx
For symmetric airfoil (dz/dx=0)
Fundamental equation for ()
1 c  (  ) d

2 0 x  
 V 

Transformation of , x into 
c c
  (1  cos ), x  (1  cos 0 )
2 2
Solution
(1  cos )
 ()  2V
sin 
Check on Kutta condition by L’Hospital’s rule
 sin 
 ()  2V 0
cos 
Total circulation around the airfoil
c
Γ    ()d  cV
0

Lift per unit span

L  V   cV2
Lift coefficient and lift slope
L dcl
cl   2 ,  2
q c d
Moment about leading edge and moment coefficient
c 
M LE    dL   q c 2
0 2

M LE  cl
cm ,le  2
 
q c 2 4
Moment coefficient about quarter-chord
cl
cm ,c / 4  cm ,le 
4
 cm , c / 4  0

For symmetric airfoil, the quarter-chord point is

both the center of pressure and the aerodynamic
center.
The cambered airfoil
Approach
Fundamental equation
1   () sin d dz

2 0 cos   cos 0
 V (  )
dx
Solution
 1  cos   
 ()  2V  A0   An sin n 
 sin  n 1 
Coefficients A0 and An
1  dz 2  dz
A0     d0 , An   cos n0 d0
 0 dx  0 dx
Aerodynamic coefficients
Lift coefficient and slope
 1  dz  dcl
cl  2    (cos 0  1)d0  ,  2
  0 dx  d
Form thin airfoil theory, the lift slope is always 2
for any shape airfoil.
Thin airfoil theory also provides a means to predict
the angle of zero lift.
1  dz
 L 0   (cos 0  1)d0
 0 dx
Moment coefficients
 cl  
cm ,le     ( A1  A2 )
4 4 

cm ,c / 4  ( A2  A1 )
4
For cambered airfoil, the quarter-chord point is not
the center of pressure, but still is the theoretical
location of the aerodynamic center.
The location of the center of pressure
c  
xcp  1  ( A1  A2 )
4  cl 
Since
xcp   as cl  0
the center of pressure is not convenient for
drawing the force system. Rather, the aerodynamic
center is more convenient.
The location of aerodynamic center
m0 dcl dcm ,c / 4
xac    0.25 , where  a0 ,  m0
a0 d d
The vortex panel numerical method
Why to use this method
For airfoil thickness larger than 12%, or high angle of
attack, results from thin airfoil theory are not good
enough to agree with the experimental data.
Approach
Approximate the
airfoil surface by
a series of straight
panels with strength
 jwhich is to be
determined.
The velocity potential induced at P due to the j th
panel is
1 y  yj
 j     pj  j ds j ,  pj  tan 1

2 j x  xj
The total potential at P
n n j
( P )    j     pj ds j
j 1 j 1 2 j

Put P at the control point of i th panel

n j
( xi , yi )     ds ij j
j 1 2 j
The normal component of the velocity is zero at the
control points, i.e.
V ,n  Vn  0
n  j ij
where V ,n  V cos i , Vn    ds j
j 1 2 n
j
i
n  j ij
 V cos i    ds j  0 , i  1,  , n
j 1 2 n
j
i
We then have n linear algebraic equation with n
unknowns.
Kutta condition

 (TE )  0   i    i 1

To impose the Kutta condition,

we choose to ignore one of the
control points.
The need to ignore one of the
control points introduces some
arbitrariness in the numerical
solution.
Chap.5

Incompressible Flow over

Finite Wings
OUTLINE
Downwash and induced drag
The Biot-Savart law and Helmholtz’s
theorems
Prandtl’s classical Lifting-line theory
Elliptical lift distribution
General lift distribution
Downwash and induced drag
Aerodynamic difference
between finite wing and
airfoil
For finite wing, the flow
near wing tips tends to
curl around the tip, being
forced from the high-
pressure just underneath
the tips to the low-
pressure region on top.
Due to the spanwsie component of flow from tip
toward to root, the streamlines over the top surface
are bent toward root. In contrast, the streamlines
over bottom surface toward tip.
A trailing vortex is created at each win tip.
Effect of downwash
Wing-tip vortices
downstream of the wing
induce a small component
of air velocity, called
downwash which is denoted
by the symbol w.
Downwash causes inclining
the local relative wind in
the downward direction.
Effective angle of attack
 eff     i
The tilting backward of the lift vector induce a drag,
called induced drag Di which is a type of pressure
drag.
Total drag = Profile drag + Induce drag, therefore
Di
C D  cd  C D ,i where C D ,i 
q S
The Biot-Savart law and Helmholtz’s theorems
The Biot-Savart law
The velocity at point P, dV, induced by a small
directed segment dl of a curved filament with
strength  is
 dl  r
dV 
4 r 3
The velocity at P by a
straight vortex filament
of infinite length is
  dl  r
V
  4 3
r
The magnitude of V
 sin 
 
V 
4   r 2
dl 
2h
h
where r 
sin 
The velocity at P by a semi-
infinite vortex filament

V
4h
Holmholtz’s vortex theorem
The strength of a vortex filament is constant along
its length.
A vortex filament cannot end in a fluid; it must
extend to the boundaries of the fluid (which can be
) or form a closed path.
Lift distribution
Different airfoil sections may have geometric and
aerodynamic twist, that results in a lift distribution
along the span.
Prandtl’s classical Lifting-line theory
Horseshoe vortex
Horseshoe vortex
consists of a bound
vortex and two free
vortex.
The bound vortex
induces no velocity
along itself, however,
the two free vortices
contribute to the
downward velocity
along the bound
vortex.
Downwash
Downwash at point y along the bound vortex is
 
w( y )   
4(b / 2  y ) 4(b / 2  y )
Lifting-line theory
Instead of a single
horseshoe vortex,
infinite number of
horseshoe vortices
with a vanishing small
strength d are
superimposed to form
the bound vortices a
single line which is
called lifting line.
The trailing vortices become a continuous vortex sheet
trailing downstream of the lifting line.
The velocity w induced at y0 by the entire trailing
vortex sheet is
1 b / 2 (d / dy )dy
4 b / 2 y0  y
w( y0 )  

The induce angle of attack is

  w( y0 )  for small angle  w( y0 )

 i ( y0 )  tan 
1
  
 V  V
1 b / 2 ( d / dy ) dy

4V b / 2 y0  y
  i ( y0 ) 
The lift coefficient at y=y0 is
cl  a0  eff ( y0 )   L 0   2 eff ( y0 )   L 0 
From the Kutta-Joukowski theorem, lift for the local
airfoil section located at y0 is
1
L  V2 c( y0 )cl  V  ( y0 )
2
2 ( y 0 )
 cl 
V c( y0 )
Expression of effective angle of attack
 ( y0 )
 eff    L 0
V c( y0 )
Fundamental equation of Prandtl’s lifting-line theory
(integro-differential equation of )
 eff     i
 ( y0 ) 1 b/2 (d / dy )dy
  i ( y0 ) 
V c( y0 )
  L  0 ( y0 ) 
4V b / 2 y0  y
The solution  gives the three main aerodynamic
characteristics of a finite wing
1. The lift distribution
L( y0 )  V  ( y0 )
2. The lift coefficient
b/2
L  V   ( y )dy
b / 2

L 2 b/2
CL  
q S V S b / 2
 ( y )dy

3. The induced drag coefficient

Di  Li sin  i  Li i
2 b/2
C D ,i 
V S 
b / 2
 ( y ) i ( y )dy
Elliptical lift distribution
Charateristic
Elliptical circulation distribution
2
 2y 
 ( y)  0 1  
 b 
where 0 is the circulation at the origin.
Elliptical lift distribution
2
 
2 y
L( y )  V  ( y )  V  0 1   
 b 
Zero lift at the wing tips
b b
 ( )   ( )  0
2 2
Resulting aerodynamic properties
By using the transformation y=b/2 cos, we obtain
0
w()  
2b
which states that downwash is constant over the span
for an elliptical lift distribution.
Induced angle of attack
CL b2
i   , Aspect ratio  AR 
AR S
Induced drag coefficient
C L2
C D ,i 
AR
which states that CD,I is proportional to the square of
CL and inversely proportional to AR.
For an elliptical lift distribution, the chord must vary
elliptically along the span; that is, the wing planform
is elliptical.
General lift distribution
Characteristic
Consider the transformation
b
y   cos
2
and assume N
 ()  2bV  An sin n
1
Fundamental equation at a given location
2b N N
sin n0
 ( 0 )  
c(0 ) 1
An sin n0   L 0 (0 )   nAn
1 sin 0
 We may choose N different spanwise stations, then
we can obtain N independent algebraic equations
with N unknowns, namely, A1, A2, AN.
Resulting aerodynamic properties
Lifting coefficient
2 b/2
CL 
V S  b / 2
 ( y )dy  A1AR
Induced drag coefficient
2
C2
 An  N
C D ,i  L
(1  ) , where    n 
AR 2  A1 
Define span efficiency factor e
e  (1  ) 1
C L2
C D ,i 
eAR
Note that =0 and e=1 for the elliptical lift
distribution. Hence, the lift distribution which yields
minimum induced drag is the elliptical lift
distribution.