What is communication?

• The root of the word “communication” in Latin is communicare, which means to share, or to make common.
• Communication is defined as the process of understanding and sharing meaning. Pearson, J., & Nelson, P. (2000).
• In order to better understand the communication process, we can break it down into a series of eight essential
components:
• Source: origin
• Message: coding message
• Channel: various medium
• Receiver: who receive
• Feedback: response
• Environment:
• Context: situation
• Interference: the obstacles
The Communication Process

Sender
initiates

Receiver gives Encoding

Feedback. Message

Receiver Sender Selects

Decodes channel and
Message Transmits

Receiver
Receives
Message
 Methods of Communication

Method

Verbal Nonverbal Visual

Written Oral Paralanguage Kinesics Proximics Chromatics Haptic Symbols Graphics Images Maps
 Verbal Communication

What is verbal communication ?

The communication done through the use of oral or written method is
known verbal communication. Language is a symbolic system that is based
on rules and norms. With the use of limited letters we can produce
unlimited numbers of words, sentences. This is the most unique and creative
possibility of language.
Broadly , verbal communication can be categorized into two types: written
and oral.
• Written communication: it refers to the process of conveying messages
using graphic symbols. In fact written communication is most common and
effective way of communication in formal organizations like college,
business companies, government oganizations etc.
 Non verbal Communication

• What is non-verbal communication : The delivering the intended message to

the receivers with the use of gestures, eye contact, dress up, distance without
using any oral words and written words . It is wordless way of communication
• Paralanguage : It refers to the way we modulate our voice, intonation and
stress including the use of silences, pauses loudness and noise to convey the
intended message. Emphasis can be achieved by repetition, stress and a loud
voice
• Proxemics: the branch of knowledge that deals with the amount of space that
people maintain
• Prosodic : all the stress and pitch pattern such as pauses, intonation which we
use in speech
• Kinesics: Kinesics is the interpretation of body motion communication
such as facial expressions and gestures, nonverbal behavior related to
movement of any part of the body or the body as a whole.
• Proximics : feel it necessary to set distance between themselves and
others.
• Haptic : Haptic perception, the process of recognizing objects through
touch. Patting, hanndshake indicate the perceived relationships.
• Chromatics : Chromatics is communication through the use of color.
It falls in category of non-verbal communication.
 Chapter 1

Thinking about audience, purpose, and genre; Leading and misleading the
reader:
- ethics at work
- ethics for students
- how is ethics related to technical
communication?
- researching technical subjects
 Introduction

• Technical communication is the exchange of information that helps

people interact with technology, achieve workplace goals and solve
complex problems.
• Technical communication refers to the activity of preparing and pub-
lashing specialized information in a way that allows non-specialists to
understand and use the information to accomplish some task
• To interact with technology in so many ways, we all rely on technical
information that is easy to understand and use. In our daily lives,
technical communication answers day –to- day questions .Technical
communication helps us interact with technology in our daily lives.
Cont----
• We live in a world in which many of our everyday actions depend on
complex but usable technical information.
• When you purchase a cell phone, you immediately turn to the
instruction manual. When you install any new device, from a DVD
player to a microwave oven to a cable modem or computer, you look
for the setup information as soon as you open the box. From banking
systems to online courses to business negotiations, countless aspects
of daily life are affected by technology.
The main purposes of Technical communication
• Informational Purpose
• Instructional Purpose
• Persuasive Purpose
Uses of technical communication
• To answer day-to-day questions
• Technical communication helps to achieve workplace goals
• To answer workplace questions
• Technical communication helps specialists solve complex problems
Main Features of Technical Communication
• Technical Communication is efficient and accessible
• Clear and relevant
• Media friendly
• Targets a global audience
• Persuasive and truthful
• Based on research
Technical writing vs academic/ college essay writing
• Reader based: For a technical document, you research, write, and design your
message not from your own personal perspective but according to the needs
of your readers. Professors read to test your knowledge, but colleagues,
customers, and supervisors will read to use your knowledge.
• Task oriented: Technical documents are typically oriented toward completing
a task, filling a need, or solving a problem, rather than supporting a personal
stance, as in an academic essay.
• Context sensitive: Technical documents are written with the context and situ-
ation in mind (e.g., the politics of what’s happening at work or government
regulations that affect what the document needs to contain).
• Design based: Unlike college essays, which take essentially one
shape(paragraphs of text), a technical document may take the form of a
brochure, a memo, a report with different sections, a numbered set of
instructions, a blog, or a Web site.
 Difference between academic and technical writing

Academic writing and technical writing are both forms of professional

writing, but they have distinct differences in terms of their purpose,
audience, tone, and structure.
• Purpose
Academic writing aims to inform, persuade, or entertain a scholarly
audience through the presentation of research and ideas.
Technical writing aims to communicate technical information to a
specific audience, typically for the purpose of instructing them to
perform a specific task or understand a particular concept.
• Audience:
Academic writing is written for a scholarly audience, consisting
of researchers, professors, and other experts in a specific field.
Technical writing is written for a more general audience who
need to use the information for a specific purpose but may
not have an extensive knowledge in the subject matter
 Difference between academic and technical
writing
Tone
• Academic writing is often more formal and objective, and can use complex
language and concepts.
• Technical writing is usually more straightforward, using clear and concise language.
Structure:
Academic writing often follows a specific structure consisting of introduction, body
and conclusion format, and includes references and citations to support the author's
arguments.
Technical writing follows a more functional structure, focusing on clear and concise
organization of information to help the reader achieve a specific goal. It may include
step-by-step instructions, diagrams, and other visual aids to support the information
presented.
• Technical Communication Focuses on the Reader not the Writer
• Unlike poetry, fiction, or essays, technical documents rarely focus on the
author’s personal thoughts and feelings. This doesn’t mean that technical
documents should have no personality (or voice), but it does mean that
the needs of your readers must come first.
• Users of technical communication are only interested in you, the
communicator, to the extent that they want to know what you have
done, what you recommend, or how you speak for your company or
organization.
• This type of communication is called “user-centered communication”
(User-centered communication requires a focus on the people who will
be using the document. What do your readers need to know? What tasks
are they trying to perform?
TECHNICAL WRITING, ACADEMIC WRITING AND IMAGINATIVE
WRITING
SIMILARITIES

 Unified, coherent and well organized.

 Style and standard usage are important.

 Rely on process of thinking .

 Purpose is to inform and persuade

 Typical Forms of User-Centered Communication

Memo : Answering
Report: Analyzing
Instructions User Manual questions about a Procedure
a problem
project's progress
Prerequisites of Effective Technical
Communication
• Analyzing audience
• Analyzing the purpose
• Selecting appropriate medium
• Being ethical
 Analyzing the Audience
• When you are writing a document for your colleagues, subordinates, you know what they
already know and what style they prefer. Even if you cannot consult your audience while
writing the document, you still need to learn everything you can about your readers so that
you can deter- mine the best scope, organization, and style for your document. Then, for
each of your most important readers, try to answer the following three questions:
• Who is your reader?( personal abilities, preferences) Consider such factors as education,
job experience and responsibilities, skill in reading English, cultural characteristics, and
personal preferences.
• What are your reader’s attitudes and expectations? Consider the reader’s attitudes toward
the topic and your message, as well as the reader’s expectations about the kind of
document you will be presenting.
• Why and how will the reader use your document?( purpose) Think about what readers will
do with the document. This includes the physical environment in which they will use it, the
techniques they will use in reading it, and the tasks they will carry out after they finish
reading it.
Primary and Secondary Audiences
• When writing a technical document, keep two audiences in mind.
• Most documents are geared to an immediate audience. This is your
primary audience. For instance a set of instructions for installing new
email software for an office might be directed primarily at the
computer support staff
• But most documents also have a secondary audience as well, those
people outside the immediate circle of people who will be needing the
information directly.
• For example, a secondary audience for software instructions might be
managers, who will check to see if the instructions comply with
company policy, or lawyers, who will make sure the instructions meet
The elements associated with audience

• Relationship with Audience

• Audience’s Technical Background
• Audience’s Cultural Background
 The ways of analyzing audience
• Picture your readers exactly what they need and expect. Whether your audience is the company president or
the person next to you in class, that person has specific concerns and information needs. Your readers may
need to complete a task, solve a problem, make a decision, evaluate your performance, or take a stand on an
issue.
• Identify the primary and secondary audiences, your relationship to them,and their technical and cultural
background.
• When you don’t know exactly who will be reading your document, picture the “general reader.” General
readers are impatient with abstract theories yet expect enough background to help them grasp your message.
They are bored or confused by excessive detail, and frustrated by raw facts left unexplained or not interpreted.
Instead of trying to show readers how smart you are, make them feel smart. Whoever they are, readers need
enough material to understand your position and to react appropriately.
• Anticipate readers’ questions. Based on their needs and concerns, readers have questions: What is it? What
does it mean? What happened? Who was involved? When, where, and why did it happen? What might
happen? How do I do it? How did you do it? Why is X better than Y? Can you give examples? Says who? So
what? Give readers what they need to know.
• Recognize that audiences are not merely passive recipients of information. Technical communicators and
their audiences should overlap and interact. Therefore, as you analyze and learn about your audience,
remember that the communication process works both ways.
 Analyzing your Purpose
You cannot start to write until you can state the purpose (or purposes)
of the document. Ask yourself these two questions:

• After your readers have read your document, what do you want them to
know or do?
• What beliefs or attitudes do you want them to hold?
• A statement of purpose might be as simple as this: “The purpose of this
report is to recommend whether the company should adopt a health-
promotion program.” Although the statement of purpose might not appear in
this form in the final document, you want to state it clearly now to help you
stay on track as you carry out the remaining steps.
Ethics of students
• Responsibility and Accountability: We take responsibility for our actions
and decisions, raising concerns about anything that’s not right.
• Integrity: We’re honest and truthful, acting within the law.
• Intellectual Freedom: We protect freedom of expression and free speech.
• Equality of Respect and Opportunity: We treat all with dignity and respect.
• Collegiality: We’re inclusive, we work together, support each other and
behave appropriately.
• Sustainability: We minimise any negative impact on the natural and built
environment.
• Avoiding plagiarism
 How is ethics related to technical communication?

• Ethics plays a crucial role in technical communication as it governs the

responsible and professional conduct of technical communicators in
their work.
• This includes ethical considerations such as accuracy, objectivity,
informed consent, privacy, and confidentiality in the handling of
information and communication.
• Technical communicators have a duty to present information clearly,
accurately, and without bias, and to respect the rights of their audience
and stakeholders.
• By adhering to ethical standards, technical communicators can ensure
the integrity and credibility of their work and maintain public trust.
 ‍What are some examples of Work Ethics?

In most cases, work ethics in an organization are derived from secular values like:
• Trustworthiness
• Integrity
• Fairness
• Responsibility
• Accountability
• loyalty
• Comradery ( friendlyliness)
• Identity
• Respect
• caring‍
Ethical Principles for technical communicator
1. Legality
2. Honesty
3. Confidentiality
4. Quality
5. Fairness
6. Professionalism
Ethical Considerations in technical
communication
• Objectivity
• Plagiarism
• Manipulation Information
• Conflict of interest
• Privacy
• Moderation in language
• Respect to others
 Plagiarism and the ways to avoid it
• Plagiarism is the act of using someone else's work, ideas, or words without proper attribution or
permission. It is considered academic misconduct and can have serious consequences, such as failure of
a course, loss of credibility, or damage to reputation.
• To avoid plagiarism, it is important to follow these best practices:
• Proper citation: Whenever you use someone else's work, ideas, or words, you should always give them
proper credit by including a citation.
• Use quotation marks: When directly quoting someone else's words, enclose the quote in quotation
marks and include a citation.
• Paraphrase carefully: When paraphrasing someone else's work, make sure to put the information into
your own words and include a citation.
• Understand the difference between common knowledge and original ideas: Information that is widely
known does not need to be cited, but original ideas and insights should always be credited to the
original source.
• Keep track of your sources: As you research, make sure to keep track of all the sources you use,
including the author, title, and publication date.
• Seek help when unsure: If you are unsure about how to properly cite a source, consult your instructor, a
 Unethical communication

Following are some of the major examples of unethical communication in the

workplace
Plagiarizing the work of others.
Falsifying or fabricating information.
Suppressing or downplaying information.
Exaggerating claims.
Using visual images that conceal the truth.
Stealing or divulging proprietary information
Misusing electronic information.
Exploiting cultural differences.
How to Avoid Ethical Abuses in technical
communication
• Always cite your sources if the information or data is not your own. For spe-
cific advice on avoiding plagiarism and citing outside sources, see Appendix A.
• Give the audience everything it needs to know. To accurately see things as
you do, people need more than just a partial view. Don’t bury readers in
needless details, but do make sure they get all the facts and get them straight.
• Give people a clear understanding of what the information means. Even
when all the facts are known, they can be misinterpreted.Try to ensure that
read- ers understand the facts as you do. If you are not certain about your
own under- standing, say so.
•
• Never manipulate information or data in your writing or in your visuals. If you
encounter data that contradicts what you want to say, include and interpret that data
honestly. Likewise, do not make your case via exaggeration, understate- ment,
sugarcoating, or any other distortion or omission.
• Use common sense or follow your company’s confidentiality guidelines. If you suspect
that information may be confidential, assume that it is or ask the appro priate personnel
to clarify.
• Do not exploit cultural inequalities or manipulate international readers. Try to be fair.
When producing a document for an international audience, be especially careful about
using simple and honest language and visuals.
• Constantly ask yourself, "Would I stand behind what I have created if I were held
publicly accountable for it?” If you would not, then chances are what you have written
is unethical to some degree. It may be not entirely honest, fair, confidential, or safe.
Thinking about ethical dilemmas

Ethicist Manuel G. Velasquez outlines four moral standards that are

useful in thinking about ethical dilemmas (2011):
• Rights
• Utility
• Justice
• Care
• Rights : This standard concerns individuals’ basic needs and welfare. Everyone agrees,
for example, that people have a right to a reasonably safe workplace. When we buy a
product, we have a right to expect that the information that accompanies it is honest
and clear. Rights are relative matters since they may differ from country to country .
• Justice : This standard concerns how the costs and benefits of an action
or a policy are distributed among a group. For example, the cost of maintaining a high-
speed broadband infrastructure should be borne, in part, by people who use it. black
or white.
• Utility. This standard concerns the positive and negative effects that an action or a
policy has, will have, or might have on others. For example, if a company is considering
closing a plant, the company’s leaders should consider not only the money they would
save but also the financial hardship of laid-off workers and the economic effects on the
community.
• Care : This standard concerns the relationships we have with other
individuals. We owe care and consideration to all people, but we have
greater responsibilities to people in our families, our workplaces, and
our communities. The closer a person is to us, the greater care we
owe that person. Therefore, we have greater obligations to members
of our family than we do to others in our community.
The Obligations to be taken care by technical
communicators
• Ethical obligation
• Obligations towards organization
• Obligations towards public
• Obligations towards environment
• Legal obligation
Ethical Obligations
• In addition to enjoying rights, an employee assumes obligations.
• Three sets of obligations that you have as an employee: to your employer,
to the public, and to the environment.
Obligation to your employer
• Competence and diligence.
• Generosity.
• Honesty and candor (the quality of being open and honest; frankness: a
man of refreshing candor)
• Confidentiality
• Loyalty
Obligations to public
• As a representative of an organization, and especially as an employee
communicating technical information, you will frequently confront
ethical questions.
• In general, an organization is acting ethically if its product or service is
both safe and effective.
• Who is responsible for injuries and product failures: the company that
provides the product or service or the consumer who purchases it
• Ensuring the right to be informed
 Obligations to the environment
• Make your products environment friendly
• Your activities should minimize the production of waste
• They contribute sustainable development
• Focus on 3Rs ( Reduce, reuse, recycle)
One of the most important lessons we have learned in recent decades is that we
are polluting and depleting our limited natural resources at an unacceptably
high rate.
Our excessive use of fossil fuels not only deprives future generations of them
but also causes possibly irreversible pollution problems, such as global warming.
Everyone—government, businesses, and individuals—must work to preserve
the environment to ensure the survival not only of our own species but also of
the other species with which we share the planet.
Legal obligations of technical communicator/ students

Our ethical values have shaped many of our laws. For this reason,
professionals should know the basics of four different bodies of law:
copyright, trademark, contract, and liability.
• Copyright,
• Trademark,
• Contract,
• Liability
 Technical Research
What is research ?
• Research is a process for collecting, analyzing and interpreting
information to answer questions.
• Burns (1997) defines research as a ’a systematic investigation to find
answers to a problem’. But to qualify a research the process must have
certain characteristics: it must as far as possible, be controlled, rigorous,
systematic, valid, empirical and critical.
Basic Qualities of Research
• Systematic
• Purposeful
• For the betterment of human and environment
• Well organized
• Acceptable
• Fulfilling the research ethics
Characteristics of technical research
• Empirical: based on experiments, observations, and measurements to test theories
and hypotheses.
• Systematic: follows a structured and organized approach to gather and analyze data.
• Quantitative: uses numerical data and statistical methods to test and validate
theories.
• Objective: strives to eliminate personal bias and aims for impartial results.
• Innovative: seeks to advance knowledge and improve existing methods, technologies,
and processes.
• Replicable: allows other researchers to verify and reproduce results to increase
credibility.
• Collaborative: often involves multiple experts from different disciplines working
together to solve complex problems.
Qualitative Methods of Research
• It is used to study the
perception, feelings, attitudes,
behaviour of people
• The findings are expressed in
paragraph, sentences etc.
• It is mostly used in fields of
social sciences, management
study, psychology etc.
• It follows subjective approach
Quantitative
• Used to find out numerical facts.
• The findings are expressed in
number, percentage, ratio
• It is mostly used in mathematical
research, scientific study
• It follows objective approach
 The parts of a typical technical research project
• The parts of a typical technical research project can be divided into several stages:
• The title
• Objectives
• Problem definition: defining the research question and identifying the scope and objectives of the study.
• Literature review: surveying relevant existing research to gain an understanding of current knowledge and
identify gaps.
• Methodology: developing a plan for collecting and analyzing data, including the selection of methods, tools,
and techniques.
• Data collection: gathering data through experiments, surveys, or other methods.
• Data analysis: processing and analyzing the data to answer the research question.
• Discussion of the findings evaluating the results in the context of existing knowledge and considering the
implications of the findings.
• Conclusion: summarizing the key findings and implications of the research, and suggesting future work.
• Reporting: preparing a written report or publishing the research in a peer-reviewed journal to share the
results with others
The Research Process in Technical
Communication
• Thinking critically about research
• Exploring primary sources of data
• Exploring secondary sources of data
• Application
Thinking Critically
• The types of research you will perform as a technical communicator
depend largely on your workplace assignment.
• Whether you work with your own findings or the findings of other
researchers, you need to decide if the information is reliable.
• Critical thinking means that you test the quality of your information
and the accuracy of your interpretations.
 Strategies for Thinking Critically about Research

• Ask right question : Ask specific, narrowed questions

• Explore a balance of views. Consider your research topic from a variety of
angles. Don’t just consult one expert because experts may disagree. Instead
find out what multiple experts say and examine the points on which the
experts agree and disagree.
• Explore your topic in sufficient depth.
• Evaluate your sources.
• Interpret your findings objectively: examine what you’ve uncovered from
multiple angles. Do your findings support only one viewpoint or are there
several ways to interpret them? If your research yields indefinite findings,
don’t try to force a definite conclusion. A wrong conclusion is worse than an
indefinite one.
Primary sources vs secondary sources
• Primary sources provide raw information and first-hand evidence. Examples
include interview transcripts, statistical data, and works of art. Primary research
gives you direct access to the subject of your research.
• Secondary sources provide second-hand information and commentary from other
researchers. Examples include journal articles, reviews, and academic books.
Thus, secondary research describes, interprets, or synthesizes primary sources.
• Primary research means getting information directly from the source by conduct-
ing interviews and surveys and by observing people, events, or processes in
action. Secondary research means getting information second hand by reading
what other researchers have compiled in books and articles in print or online.
Most information found on the Internet would be considered a secondary source.
• Whenever possible, combine primary and secondary research.
• Working with primary sources can help you expand on what other
people have already learned and add considerable credibility to your
work. For instance, assume that your boss asks you to write a report
about how successfully your company’s new product is being received
in the marketplace
• you might consult sales reports and published print and online
reviews of the product (secondary research); but you might also
survey product users and interview some of them individually
(primary research).
Exploring Secondary Sources
• Secondary sources include Web sites; online news outlets and
magazines; blogs and wikis; books in the library; journal, magazine,
and newspaper articles; government publications; and other public
records.
• Research assignments begin more effectively when you first uncover
and sort through what is already known about your topic before
adding to that knowledge yourself.
Benefits and drawbacks of Web-based sources
Benefits
• More current, efficient,
and accessible only
• Searches can be narrowed or
broadened
• Can offer material that has no
hard-copy equivalent
• Access to recent material
Drawbacks
Not always reliable
• User might get confused by too
many choices
• No access to the a bit old
information
• Not eyes friendly
• Not accessible in remote and
under developed areas
Benefits and drawbacks of Hard-copy sources

Benefits Drawbacks
• Available on library shelves, • Time-consuming and inefficient
where you might also find related to search
material • Offer only text and images •
• Easy to determine author, Hard to update
publication date, and page
number
• Easier to preserve and keep
secure
Exploring Primary Sources

Primary sources include unsolicited inquiries, informational interviews,

surveys, and observations or experiments.
• unsolicited inquiries: When making an unsolicited inquiry, make sure you
contact the right individual or individuals.
• Informational Interviews : Informational interviews lead to original,
unpublished material. Of course, an expert’s opinion can be just as
mistaken or biased as anyone else’s.
 Strategies for informational interviews
• Know exactly what you are seeking
• Do your homework
• Request the interview at your respondent’s convinience
• Make each question clear, specific and an open ended
• Avoid loaded questions
• Keep the most difficult, complex or sensitive questions for the last
• Be polite and professional
• Let your interviewee do most of the talking
• Stick to your interview plan
• Ask for closing comments
• Ask for permission to follow up
• Invite the interviewee to read your version of the interview.
• End on time and thank the interviewee.
STRATEGIES for Surveys

• Surveys help you form impressions of the concerns, preferences,

attitudes, beliefs, or perceptions of a large, identifiable group (a
target population) by studying representatives of that group (a
sample).
• While interviews allow for greater clarity and depth, surveys offer an
inexpensive way to get the viewpoints of a large group.
STRATEGIES for Surveys

• Define the survey’s purpose and target population.

• Identify the sample group.
• Define the survey method.
• Decide on the types of questions
• Develop an engaging and informative introduction.
• Phrase questions precisely.
• Avoid loaded questions.
• Make the survey brief, simple,and inviting.
• Have an expert review your questionnaire whenever possible.
 Ethics at workplace
What is ethics?
Ethics is the code of conducts to be followed in every field .
What is Work Ethics?
Workplace ethics is set of moral guidelines that an organization as a whole,
and its individuals have to follow.
• Ethics also is the basis of cohesive, supportive company culture and an
important way for a company to build a strong relationship with its
customers.
 Assignment
1. How do you define technical communication? Why is it useful in our daily
life? (5)
2. Write an email to your teacher requesting to extend the submission date of
your assignment. (10)
3. Prepare a list of 7 instructions for examinees of Bachelor of Computer
Engineering. (7)
4. Write an email to your sister about plagiarism and the ways to avoid it in
academic writing. (10)
5. What do you mean by obligations? Suppose you are working as an IT
manager at an internet service provider in Nepal, write two paragraphs
about your obligations . (10)
6. How do you differentiate technical writing from academic writing? Discuss
with examples . (10)
Assignment 2
1. How do you define technical communication? Why is it useful in
our daily life? (10)
2. Prepare a list of guidelines for the tourists going for trekking at
Annapurna Area. (7)
3. How do you differentiate technical writing from academic writing?
Discuss with examples . (10)
Assignment
• 1. What do you mean by obligations? Suppose you are working as an
IT manager at an internet service provider in Nepal, write two
paragraphs about your obligations .