Quantitative and Qualitative

Research Methods

T. Lakshmanasamy
ICSSR Senior Fellow
University of Madras
Chennai
tlsamy@yahoo.co.in
 Research?
• Research – re search?

• Research is intellectual

• Research – solvable problems – solutions exists

• Research (er) should be interesting (ed)

• Research – looks into breath and depth of an issue

• Research aims - towards a significant contribution to

scientific knowledge or improve methodology
 Research Framework
• Introduction to the Issue – observed or discussed in literature

• Statement of the Problem - identification of the researchable issues

• Objectives, hypothesis, methodology – theory, data & empirical methods, value of the research

• Review of Literature (specific to the issue being investigated) – chronological, Issue based, Solution based,
alternative paradigms, inter & multi-disciplinary perspectives

• Methodology – Theoretical – alternation explanations, Empirical (Cross section, Time Series, Panel,
experimental, events)

• Data – Sources, Variables, Measures, Constructions, Comparability

• Empirical Methods – Frequency, means, cross-tables, correlation, statistical methods

• Empirical Analysis – Functional form, estimation framework, inference

• Discussion – interpretation of results, deriving meaningful observations, comparison with past literature,
explaining the behaviour of results

• Summary and conclusion – summarising the research work and deriving findings of the research work

• Policy Relevance, suggestions, recommendations – what are implications of the results for designing
programmes and their implementation
Steps involved in the formulation of empirical analysis

Theory (Previous Studies)

Formulation of an Estimable Model

Framing Hypotheses

Collection of Data (Primary/Secondary)

Model Estimation

Is the Model Statistically Adequate?

No Yes

Reformulate Model Interpret Model

Use for Prediction/Policy/Analysis

 Empirical research methods

• Empirical Research
•
• Qualitative Quantitative

• Observation Survey/Experimental
•
• Participant Observation Focus Group Census Sample
• (Ethnography, Case study, Action research)
•
• Parametric Semi-parametric Non-parametric
 Choice of methodology & methods
• Depends on

– Need for the Research

– Research Questions

– Research Goals

– Researcher Beliefs and Values

– Researcher Skills

– Availability of Literature, Data, Analytical Techniques,

Computing facilities, Discussions, Dissemination
– Time and Finance
 The slippery slope of research

Quantitative research
apersonal
Objective,

Qualitative rese
arch
Ca
se
stu
dy
res
e arc
h

Ac
tio
nr
es
interpersonal

ea
rch
Subjective,
Qualitative vs Quantitative Research
Qualitative
(Usually) Non-probability based
sample
Non-generalizable
Answers Why? How?
Formative, earlier phases
Data are “rich” and time
consuming
Design may emerge as study
unfolds
Researcher is the instrument
Quantitative
Typically probability-based
sample
Generalizable
Answers quantitatively. How
many? When? Where?
Test hypotheses, latter phases
Data are more efficient, but may
miss contextual detail
Design decided in advance
Structured tools, instruments
employed
 Different & Apart
Qualitative
Goal To understand (what, how, &
why)
Data Defines very general
concepts & searches for
patterns
Wide lens (inductive)
Applied & theoretical
Tool Participant-Observation
In-depth Interviews
Focus Groups
Document Analysis
Focus Rich “thick” description
Naturalistic enquiry
Similarities & contrasts
Process & context
Quantitative
To predict & control
Isolates & defines variables &
tests
hypotheses on data
Narrow lens (deductive)
Measure & evaluate
Surveys, Questionnaires
Randomized controlled trials
Systematic reviews/meta
analyses
Prediction
Outcomes
Generalisability
Controlled & experimental
 Qualitative vs Quantitative
Qualitative Quantitative
Research Research
Type of questions Probing Limited probing
Sample Size small large
Info. Per much varies
respondent
Admin Requires skilled Fewer specialist
researcher skills required

Type of Analysis Subjective, Statistical

interpretative

Type of research Exploratory Descriptive or

causal

Type of Method Study of ‘numbers’ Study of ‘things’

 Quantitative vs Qualitative Research
• Qualitative research is an interdisciplinary, transdisciplinary, and
sometimes counter-disciplinary field. It crosses the humanities and
the social and physical sciences. Qualitative research is many
things at the same time. It is multi-paradigmatic in focus. Its
practitioners are sensitive to the value of the multimethod approach.
They are committed to the naturalistic perspective, and to the
interpretative understanding of human experience.
• Qualitative Research…involves finding out what people think, and
how they feel - or at any rate, what they say they think and how they
say they feel. This kind of information is subjective. It involves
feelings and impressions, rather than numbers. - A study of ‘things’.
• Quantitative approach is one in which the investigator primarily uses
post-positivist claims for developing knowledge (i.e. cause and effect
thinking, reduction to specific variables and hypotheses and
questions, use of measurement and observation, and the test of
theories) = A study of ‘numbers’.
 Quantitative Research
• Sample Data and Variables
• 3 types of data used in empirical analysis:
• Primary vs secondary data

1. Time series data

2. Cross-sectional data
3. Panel or pooled data, combination of 1 and 2
4. Special data: Event, Cohort, Duration, Spatial, Ethnographic data
5. Nature of variable: continuous, dichotomous, discrete, categorical,
truncated, censored
 Census: Complete enumeration of the Population or Universe

 Time and money constraints – Not feasible

• Sample: Select some representations

• Sampling Methods: Random, Stratified, Cluster, multi-stage
 How much reliable the sample is?
 How to know whether the sample is representative of the
Universe?
 Repeat the samples n times

 Obtain mean for each sample

 If there is no difference between the sample means, sample is

representative
 Due to errors, means bound to differ

 Find the standard error of the sample – the standard deviation

of the sample means
 Standard Error = s Then, go for small SE
sX 
n
 What do to with samples?
• Examine the relationships?

• Estimate the values of Population/Universe?

 Can we estimate the population characteristics/ parameters

using sample data?
 Population Parameters: Mean (μ) and Variance (σ2)

 Sample Parameters: Mean ( ) and Variance (s2)

X
 Population parameters are unknown?

 Do the sample values estimate population values?

 Test for confidence on the sample values?

 Data Analysis
• Before analysis of data:

• Get an idea about the behaviour of data

• Distribution of variables

• Frequency tables: to know whether there is enough

representation

• Frequency plots: to know how the distribution is

• Cross tables: to know the relationship between variables

• Descriptives: to know the average and deviations

• Mean, standard deviation, variance, coefficient of variation –

• Correlation, regression: to know the association and effects

 Types of variables and statistical methods
Types of variables to be analysed Statistical procedure
or measure of association
Predictor variable/s Outcome variable

Cross-sectional/case-control studies
Binary (two groups) continuous T - test
Binary Ranks/ordinal Wilcoxon rank-sum test
Categorical (> 2 groups) Continuous ANOVA
Continuous Continuous Simple linear regression
Multivariate (categorical and Continuous Multiple linear regression
continuous)
Categorical Categorical Chi-square test (or Fisher’s exact)
Binary Binary Odds ratio, risk ratio
Multivariate Binary Logistic regression

Cohort Studies/Clinical Trials

Binary Binary Risk ratio
Categorical Time-to-event Kaplan-Meier/ log-rank test
Multivariate Time-to-event Cox-proportional hazards regression, hazard
ratio
Categorical Continuous Repeated measures; ANOVA
Multivariate Continuous Mixed models; GEE modeling
 Statistics for various types of outcome data
Are the observations
Outcome Variable
independent or correlated? Assumptions

Independent Correlated

Continuous T - test Paired t-test Outcome is normally

distributed (important for
(e.g. pain scale, ANOVA Repeated- small samples)
cognitive function) measures ANOVA
Linear correlation Outcome and predictor
Mixed have a linear relationship
Linear regression models/GEE
modeling

Binary or categorical Difference in proportions McNemar’s test Chi-square test assumes

sufficient numbers in each
(e.g. fracture yes/no) Relative risks Conditional cell (>=5)
logistic regression
Chi-square test
GEE modeling
Logistic regression

Time-to-event Kaplan-Meier statistics n/a Cox regression assumes

proportional hazards
(e.g. time to fracture) Cox regression between groups
 Continuous outcome (means)
Are the observations independent or correlated?
Outcome
Variable
Independent
Continuous T - test: compares means
between two independent
(e.g. pain
groups
scale,
cognitive
ANOVA: compares means
function) between more than two
independent groups
Pearson’s correlation
coefficient (linear
correlation): shows linear
correlation between two
continuous variables
Linear regression:
multivariate regression
technique used when the
outcome is continuous; gives
slopes
Correlated
Paired t-test: compares means
between two related groups
(e.g., the same subjects before
and after)
Repeated-measures ANOVA:
compares changes over time
in the means of two or more
groups (repeated
measurements)
Mixed models/GEE modeling:
multivariate regression
techniques to compare
changes over time between
two or more groups; gives rate
of change over time
Alternatives if the
normality assumption is
violated (small sample size)
Non-parametric statistics
Wilcoxon sign-rank test: non-
parametric alternative to the
paired t-test
Wilcoxon sum-rank test
(=Mann-Whitney U test): non-
parametric alternative to the
ttest
Kruskal-Wallis test: non-
parametric alternative to
ANOVA
Spearman rank correlation
coefficient: non-parametric
alternative to Pearson’s
correlation coefficient
 Binary or categorical outcomes (proportions)

Are the observations correlated? Alternative to the chi-

Outcome square test if sparse
Variable
Independent Correlated cells

Binary or Chi-square test: compares
categorical proportions between more
than two groups
(e.g.
fracture,
Relative risks: odds ratios
yes/no) or risk ratios
Logistic regression:
multivariate technique
used when outcome is
binary; gives multivariate-
adjusted odds ratios
McNemar’s chi-square test: Fisher’s exact test: compares
compares binary outcome proportions between
between correlated groups (e.g., independent groups when there
before and after) are sparse data (some cells <5).
Conditional logistic regression: McNemar’s exact test:
multivariate regression compares proportions between
technique for a binary outcome correlated groups when there
when groups are correlated are sparse data (some cells <5).
(e.g., matched data)
GEE modeling: multivariate
regression technique for a
binary outcome when groups
are correlated (e.g., repeated
measures)
 Time-to-event outcome (survival data)
Are the observation groups independent or Modifications to
Outcome correlated? Cox regression if
Variable proportional-
Independent Correlated
hazards is violated

Time-to- Kaplan-Meier statistics: n/a (already over Time-dependent

estimates survival functions for time) predictors or time-
event each group (usually displayed dependent hazard ratios
(e.g., graphically); compares (tricky!)
time to survival functions with log-
fracture) rank test

Cox regression: Multivariate

technique for time-to-event
data; gives multivariate-
adjusted hazard ratios
 Inference data analysis
• Using statistical tests/analysis to derive meaningful results

• Based on probability sampling

• Applies certain statistical techniques on samples

• Commonly assumes certain statistical distributions of sample

• Normal, binomial, poison, Weibull, gompetz, etc

• Common to assume spherical/normal distribution

• Normal: Mean, median and mode are identical

• Inverted bell shaped

• At samples, any normal variable will have normal distribution

 The Normal distribution
• If a random variable (X) • Normal distribution
is distributed normally:
• The total area under the
is 1
• Probabilities for the
normal random variable
are given by areas under
the curve
• Large sample (n>30)
1  ( x   ) 2 / 2 2
follow normal f ( x;  ,  2 )  e
distribution 2 2
 Area under normal curve
No matter what  and 
are:

The area between -

and + is about 68%

The area between -2

and +2 is about 95%
68% of
the
The area between -3
data
and +3 is about
99.7%
95 % of the
Almost all values fall data
within 3 standard
deviations 99.7 % of the data
 Descriptive statistics
n
• Mean = Average or expected value of a
random variable
x i
x  i 1

n
• Standard deviation: A measure of
variability or diversity showing how n

much variation or ‘dispersion’ there is  (x   x )2

from the average (mean or expected sx  i 1
n 1
value)

• Variance = SD2: The average of the n

squared differences from the mean; A  (x   x)
measure of the dispersion of a set of s x2  i 1
data points around their mean value; n 1
the variability (volatility) from an n
average
 ( x  X )( y
i i Y )
• Covariance: A measure of how much Cov ( x, y )  i 1

two variables change together

n 1
 Correlation
Plot of Height vs Weight
• Interested only in determining whether a 7

relationship exists 6.6

6.2

Height
5.8
• Correlation measures the strength or degree of 5.4

linear association between two variables 5

4.6
100 140 180 220 260
Weight
• Association means that the fluctuations in the Plot of Height vs Weight
values for each variable is sufficiently regular to 6.8
make it unlikely that the association has arisen by 6.5
chance 6.2

Height
5.9

• Corr: -1 < r < 1 (unitless value) 5.6

5.3
100 140 180 220 260
• A key thing to remember when working with Weight
correlations is never to assume a correlation
Plot of Height vs Weight
means that a change in one variable causes a
6.6
change in another
6.2

Height
5.8
• The dependent and explanatory variables are
5.4
treated alike 5
100 140 180 220 260
Weight
 Sir Francis Galton (1822-1911)
• Pearson Product Moment
Correlation Coefficient (r)
is standardized covariance

Cov ( x, y )
r
var x vary

n XY  ( X )( Y )
r
[n X  ( X ) ][n Y  ( Y ) 2 ]
2 2 2
 Summarizing the relationship between two variables

Predictor Variable Criterion Variable Correlation to Use

Interval Interval (Continuous) Pearson
(Continuous)
Real Dichotomy Interval (Continuous) Point Biserial

Artificial Dichotomy Interval (Continuous) Biserial

Real Dichotomy Real Dichotomy Phi

Artificial Dichotomy Artificial Dichotomy Tetrachoric
Ranking Ranking Spearman (rank) rho
for 20 or more rankings
Ranking Ranking Kendall’s (rank) tau for
less than 20 rankings
 Analysis of causal effect
Direct effects • Interaction effects
Path Diagram of A Linear Regression
Interaction Analysis
Analysis

X1
X1 A

C Y

error
YY B

X2 X2

Y= K + aX1 + BX2 + CX1*X2

• Interaction coefficient: C
x3 • X1 and X2 must be in model for
interaction to be properly
specified
 Path analysis
A Path Analysis
Decomposition of Effects into Direct, • In a path analysis, Yi is
Indirect, Spurious, and Total Effects
endogenous. It is the
outcome of several
Error

Error

X2 paths
C

• Direct effects on Y3:

Y3
A

X1
E F
C,E, F
B

Y2
D

Error
• Indirect effects on Y3:
Y1 BF, BDF
Error

• Total Effects= Direct +

Indirect effects
Direct Effects: Indirect Effects: Total Effects:
Paths C, E, F Paths Sum of Direct and Spurious effects are due to
AC, BE, DF Indirect Effects common (antecedent) causes
 Linear regression analysis
• Regression analysis used to predict the value of one variable
(dependent variable) on the basis of other variables (independent
variables)
• Deterministic Model: an equation or set of equations that allow us to
fully determine the value of the dependent variable from the values
of the independent variables
y   0  1 x
• Probabilistic Model: a method used to capture the randomness that
is part of a real-life process
y   0  1 x  
• We would be interested in estimating β0 (intercept) and β1 (slope)
from the data we collect

• ε  Normal Random Variable (με =0, σε = σε2)

 On ε or error
• Why to add the error term or ε?
• When there are errors, but estimated without ε, the estimated
results will be biased
• If corrected for the errors, OLS will be BLUE estimator
Error Meaning Remedy
Omitted variables Some explanatory variable not Include additional relevant
included variables

Measurement error Incorrect measurement of variables

Concept error Differences between theoretical Clearly establish the relation
concept and empirical counterpart between the two

Empirical error Incorrect measure Use proxy/IV

Functional form Specification of estimating Use correct functional form
relationships

Sampling error Samples may not be Collect relevant and

representative representative samples

Outliers Extreme observations Drop outliers

 The Simple Linear model
In correlation, the two variables • The regression line
are treated as equals

In regression, one variable is

considered independent
(=predictor) variable (X) and the
other the dependent =outcome)
variable Y

What is linear?

The relationship between X and Y


Linear model Y =  + X

 = change in Y for a unit change

in X
 Least Squares Line

these differences n ces

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are called d iffe
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residuals or q u ar
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d the
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Ho 14 for
2.1
 Least Squares Line
• A straight line that minimizes
the sum of the squared
differences between the points
and the line

• The coefficients b1 and b0 for

the least squares

• from

• …are calculated as:

 Statistical Inference
• Inferences can be made concerning the likely population
parameters that have been estimated from sample data
• We are interested to see that “Given the estimate, the true
population parameter is 1 or any value”
• The Null hypothesis H0 :  = 1 (or) 0
• The Alternate hypothesis H1 :   1 (or) 0
• The significance levels have to be less than .05 for the
parameter to be statistically significant
• Both estimators are linear functions of u
• u follows a normal distribution
• Therefore, ˆ ~ N ( , v ) and ˆ ~ N(  , v )
• Convert them into a standard normal variable
• But variance contains 2u (unknown)
 Statistical error
• Having obtained a True False
parameter value from the
sample test for its Accept
trueness to the True ok Type
population value II
• Accepting a false Reject
relationship is more Type I ok
serious than rejecting a
true one
 Hypothesis Testing Procedures

Hypothesis
Testing
Procedures

Param etric Nonparam etric

W ilcoxon Kruskal-W allis

Rank Sum H-Test
Test
One-W ay
Z Test t Test
ANOVA
 Explanation of the assumptions
Assumption Why necessary Detection
Linear Functional form Does not detect curvilinear relationships Regression curve fitting,
No level shifts: One regime

Independent observations Autocorrelation inflates the t and r and f Runs test

statistics and warps the significance tests

Normality of the residuals Permits proper significance testing Normality of the residuals: Shapiro-
Wilks or Kolmogorov-Smirnov Test

Equality of variance Heteroskedasticity precludes Homogeneity of variance if the

generalization and external validity and residuals: White’s General
warps the significance tests Specification test

No Multicollinearity Prevents proper parameter estimation and Correlation matrix of independent

preclude computation of the parameter variables
estimates completely Condition index or condition
number
Autocorrelation Inflates the t and r and f statistics and No autocorrelation of residuals:
warps the significance tests Durbin Watson or ACF or PACF of
residuals

Outlier distortion If sample is not large may bias the results Plot residuals and standardise
residuals
 Other violations
Error Problem Remedy
Omitted A variable is omitted from the specification either due to an error by Leads us to reject true
variables the researcher or lack of data null hypotheses too
If the variable is uncorrelated with the included variables: often
The estimated slopes are inefficient (their variance is too large) Identify and include
correct variables
The estimated slopes are unbiased
Better to include a
If the variable is correlated with the included variables: variable that should
The t-tests are biased (the estimated variance of the slopes is too small) not be there than
exclude a variable that
The estimated slopes are biased should

Measure In the dependent variable: Measure your

ment Slope is biased toward zero - null hypotheses that are false are more variables as accurately
error difficult to reject as possible to improve
the power of your tests
Makes it more difficult to reject null hypotheses
In an independent variable:
Slope is biased toward zero
Slopes of other variables that are correlated with this variable can also
be biased
Measurement error can lead to rejecting true nulls
 Alternatives to violations of assumptions
Assumption Parametric Nonparametric
Nonlinearity Transform to linearity
or run a nonlinear regression
Nonnormality Run a least absolute deviations Quantile regression with
regression or a median regression or bootstrapped standard errors
generalized linear models

Heteroskedasticity Weighted Least Squares Regression, use robust standard errors

Generalised least squares or White
Estimator, Use a robust regression
procedure to obtain downweighted
outlier effect in the estimation
Or Log transformation of variables

Autocorrelation Run AREG Trends or either Prais or Newey-West autoregression or

Newey-West procedure
First order autocorrelation
correction with Areg.
If there is higher order
autocorrelation, use Box Jenkins
ARIMA modeling

Multicollinearity Components regression or ridge

regression or proxy variables
2SLS
 More on data analysis
• Variations and extensions of the regression model
– Spherical and non-spherical distributions
– Heteroscedastic models
– autocorrelation models
– non-linear regression models

• Matrix computations (linear algebra) is almost indispensable tool

• Time series and Panel data (Cross-section+time series)
• Simultaneous equations models (reduced form &VAR)
• Limited dependent variables (Probit, Logit, Multinomial Logit)
• Qualitative response models (Censored &Truncated)
• Semi-parametric and Non-parametric Models
• Bayesian Techniques
• Different distributions (Logistic, Lognormal, Weibull, Gompertz)
 Qualitative (dummy) independent variable

• If the explanatory variable is qualitative

• Taking value 1 if present and 0 if not present

• Dummy variable shifts the intercept, not the slope of regression line

• Use one value, leaving other value, for comparison of the effect

• In case of categorical data like occupation

• Dummy variable captures the effect of the shifts from one to the
other (compared to the reference category)

• In case of ordered categories like income groups

• bk = (bk – bk-1)/nk

• where k stands for the levels

 Qualtitative (limited) dependent variable

• What if the dependent variable is an indicator /

qualitative variable?

• The model then has two stages:

• First, predict a value zi from predictors as before

• Second, the probability of indicator value 1 is

obtained

• Given data, we can estimate coefficients in a similar

way as before

• Interpret coefficients as changes in probability or

likelihood, not as absolute change
 Binary dependent variable
• The dependent variable is a category: binary or ordered

• Only two values (yes or no, male or female)

• Values can be coded as 1 if yes or male and 0 if no or female

• Transform the dependent variable as:

• Probit:  Y 
    0  1 X
1 Y 

• Logit: 1
Y
1  e  X
• Coefficient: “What is the probability that Y=1?”
 Basics of Inferential Research
• 1st – look at the sign
• 2nd –look at the size
• 3rd – look at the significance
• 4th – look at the R square
• 5th – look at the F
 Qualitative Research
• Qualitative researchers study things in their natural
settings, attempting to make sense of or interpret
phenomenon in terms of the meanings people bring to
them
• In qualitative study inquirers state research questions,
not objectives (i.e. specific goals for the research) or
hypotheses (i.e. predictions that involve variables and
statistical tests).
• Conducted when:
• - structured research not possible
- responses may not be available
• Conducting research with Observational Techniques or
Unstructured questionnaire
 QR – Observation Technique
• Classification of observation
• Direct – Observing behaviour as it occurs
• Indirect – Observing the effects of behaviour
• Structured – Predetermine what to observe
• Unstructured – Monitor all behaviour
• Conditions
• Event occurs in short time interval – No lags
• Event occurs where you can observe – praying, cooking not suitable
• Necessary under situations of faulty recall
• QualitatData Collection
• Sources of qualitative data
– Observing (formal/informal)
– Interviewing
– Using questionnaires
– Examining records
 QR: Advantages & Limitations
• Greater data accuraracy – in natural settings
behaviour is natural
• Problems of refusal, not at home, no time, non-
cooperatitin, etc absent
• No recall error
• In some situations only way – visitors to a place, child
behaviour
• But – Time consuming – too many things to observe
• May not be representative, Non-replicable, Subjective
• Difficulty in determining root cause of behaviour
 Focus Group Research
• An interview conducted in a non-structured and natural manner by a trained
moderator/facilitator with a small group of respondents
• Group size – 8-12
• Composition – homogenous, anonymity, prescreened
• Time – 1-3 hours
• Recording – audio, video
• Objectives of FG
• Understanding – vernacular, customs
• Revealing – needs, motives, perceptions, motives, attitudes
• Moderator/facilitator must be stimulative, initiative, participative
• Advantages & Disadvantages
• Synergism, snowballing, stimulation, security, speed, cost saving
• Lack of representativeness, misuse, misjudge, moderation problem, difficulty of
analysis
 Participant Observation Method
• Roots in traditional ethnographic
research
• Used in community settings to study
community’s daily activities
• Study differing perspectives through
observation alone or by both observing
and participating to varying degrees
 Observation Research
• Observation can be scientific when it is specifically
designated to answer a research question, is
systematically planned and executed, uses proper
controls and provides a reliable and valid account of
what happened
• To be systematic, observations must be carried out
with reference to three crucial issues
• what to observe
• where and when to observe
• how much to infer when recording observations
• it is more than “watching”
What is participant observation?
• What people say they believe and say
that they do are often contradicted by
their behavior
• There will be multiple perspectives
within any given community
• Help researchers learn the perspectives
held by study populations
• Often done at the beginning of the data
collection phase
 Observation - behavioural
Behavioural Observation
• Nonverbal behaviour - includes body movement,
expressions, eyeblink rates, exchanged glances
• Linguistic behaviour - e.g. study of how, what and
how much information is conveyed in a training
situation
• Extralinguisitic behaviour - vocal, inc. pitch, loudness
and timbre; temporal inc. rate of speaking, duration of
utterance and rhythm; interaction inc. tendencies to
interrupt, dominate or inhibit; verbal stylistic inc.
vocabulary and pronunciation, dialect
• Spatial relationships - how a person relates physically
to others, and organise territory about them
 Observation - nonbehavioural
Nonbehavioural Observation
• record analysis involve historical or current
records, public or private
• records may be written, printed, sound
recorded, photographed, video taped
• physical condition analysis - store audits to
determine availability of merchandise
• physical process analysis - time and motion
studies, traffic flows, paperwork flows in an
office
 Advantages
• Researcher approaches participants in their own
environment rather than having the participants
come to the researcher
• Learn what life is like for an “insider” while
remaining, inevitably, an “outsider.”
• Gaining an understanding of the physical, social,
cultural, and economic contexts in which study
participants live;
• Understanding the relationships among and between
people, contexts, ideas, norms, and events;
• Understanding people’s behaviors and activities –
what they do, how frequently, and with whom
 Advantages
• Reduces respondent filtering, obtrusiveness
• Develops a familiarity with the cultural milieu
that will prove invaluable throughout the
project
• Observing and participating are integral to
understanding the breadth and complexities
of the human experience
• Uncover factors important for a thorough
understanding of the research problem but
that were unknown when the study was
designed
 Methods
• Make careful, objective notes about what you
see, recording all accounts and observations
as field notes in a field notebook
• Informal conversation and interaction with
members of the study population
• Helps to design questions for other methods
that will give us the best understanding of
the phenomenon being studied
 Disadvantages
• Time-consuming
• Documenting the data – voluminous
• Relies on your memory to write later on
• Inherently subjective exercise, whereas research
requires objectivity
• Difference between reporting or describing what is
observed (more objective) versus interpreting what
is seen (less objective)
• Impossible to predict
• Problems of reliability and quantification
 Overcoming Difficulties
• Make inquiry more focused
• For data collection team include researchers who
are native, with cultural awareness
• Use the diligence of the researcher rather than
technology such as tape recorders to obtain quality
data
• In team based research, field staff can review one
another’s field notes
• Reduce bias in objective versus subjective
observations through discussions
 Form of PO data
• Detailed field notes that the researcher
records in a field notebook
• Include maps and other diagrams, such as
kinship or organizational charts
• Quantification of something and, as a
result, produce numerical data
 Using PO data
• Integral part of the iterative research process
– back-and-forth revising and refining
• PO is almost always used with other
qualitative methods, such as interviews and
focus groups
• PO may be done prior to other data
collection, as well as simultaneously with
other methods and during data analysis
 Ethical Guidelines
• No formal rules about disclosing your involvement
• Obtain formal informed consent for participant observation
• You should be discreet enough about who you are and what
you are doing
• You do not disrupt normal activity
• Yet you should be open enough that the people you observe
and interact with do not feel that your presence compromises
their privacy
• Do not mislead, respond truthfully to information sought by
respondents
• Do not neglect to inform the person of their right to refuse
further discussion and of your commitment to confidentiality if
they decide to continue talking with you
 Confidentiality
• Make a personal commitment to protect the
identities of the people you observe or with
whom they interact
• Enter the field notes into the computer, with a
code list kept in a separate, secure computer
file with limited access
• Particular individuals can never be linked to
the data they provide
• Do not disclose personal characteristics that
could allow others to guess the identities of
people who played a role in the research
 Responsibilities as a participant observer
• Observing people as they engage in activities that would
probably occur in much the same way if you were not present
• Engaging to some extent in the activities taking place, either in
order to better understand the local perspective or so as not to
call attention to yourself
• Interacting with people socially outside of a controlled
research environment, such as at public meeting place or
market
• If casual conversation gives way to more substantive
discussion of the research topic, you would need to disclose
your identity, affiliation, and purpose
• Identifying and developing relationships with key informants,
stakeholders, and gatekeepers
 PO: individually or as a team?
• PO may be done individually, in pairs, and in teams
• Appropriate arrangement include the age, gender,
physical appearance, ethnicity, personality, and
linguistic abilities of different data collectors
• Members of a team to disperse to different locations
individually, or in pairs or groups, to spend time
doing focused observation to address particular
questions
• They can then reconvene to compare notes
 Tips for taking field notes
• Begin each notebook entry with the date, time, place, and type
of data collection event
• Leave space on the page for expanding your notes, or plan to
expand them on a separate page
• Take only brief notes during data collection
• Note down what is happening and being said
• Cover a range of observations. In addition to documenting
events and informal conversations
• Note people’s body language, moods, or attitudes; the general
environment; interactions among participants; ambiance; and
other information that could be relevant
• To document details or quotes, write down key words and
phrases that will trigger your memory when you expand notes
• If possible quickly use shorthand, abbreviations and acronyms
 Conducting Qualitative study?
• What is observation?

• What can we learn from observation?

• What are the disadvantages of

observation?

• What form do observation data take?

• How are observation data used?

 What You Should Ask?
• How much should I disclose about who I am
and what I am doing?
• How do I maintain confidentiality during
observation?
• How should informed consent be handled for
observation?
• What are my responsibilities as a observer?
• Is observation to be done individually or as a
team?
 What You Should Ask?
• Where should I do observation?
• When should I do observation?
• How long does observation take?
• What is the difference between
observing and participating?
• How do key informants figure into
observation?
 What You Should Ask?
• How do I document what I learn during observation?
• What should I do with my field notes?
• When should I share my data with the research
team?
• How to be an observer?
• How do I prepare for observation?
• How should I behave during observation?
• What should I document?
• How do I take field notes?
• How do I expand my notes?
 Case Study Method
• Research cases can be used:

– In exploratory research – to discover

– In explanatory research – to test, to explain, or to compare

• The purpose of case study research is to use empirical evidence

from real situations to make an original contribution to knowledge
• Yin (1994) defines a case study as an empirical enquiry that:

– investigates a contemporary phenomenon within its real-life

context, especially when
– the boundaries between phenomenon and context are not clearly
evident
– Commonly called “interpretive research”
 Design of Case Study
• Five components of good case study design:

- a study’s questions

- its propositions, if any

- its unit(s) of analysis

- the logic linking the data to the propositions

- the criteria for interpreting the findings

Doing a good case study:

- Make sure that you find an interesting case

- Make sure you have good people skills

- Gather rich data and try to establish the context

 What makes is a good case study?
• The case study must be ‘interesting’

• The case study must display sufficient evidence

• The case study must be ‘complete’

• The case study must consider alternative perspectives

• The case study should be written in an engaging manner

• The case study should contribute to knowledge

• Advantages of case study research:

• Most popular qualitative research method

• allows researchers to explore or test theories within the context of messy real-life situations

• Disadvantages of case study research:

• Difficult to gain access to the particular interesting case that you want to study

• The researcher has no control over the situation

• Case study research can be time consuming

• One case study is fine! A common error: sampling logic

Example of case study research design

In-depth interviews Hackman and Oldham's Job Diagnostic

Survey (1980)

Results

Semi-structured Participant observation

interviews

Direct output from research method

Information for research method formulation
 Action Research
• Action research is a process of systematic reflection, enquiry
and action carried out by individuals about their own practice in
order to improve it

• A reflective process that allows for inquiry and discussion

• A process that assesses needs, documents steps of inquiry,

analyzes data, assists in making informed decisions

• Social conditions might be enhanced through the group

processes that involve four steps:

• Planning, acting, observing, reflecting

• These steps leads to the development of action research

 Types and key characteristics of action research
• Types of Action Research:

• Practical Action Research - enhances the practice through the

systematic study of a problem
• Participatory Action Research- - collaborative and community
based research
• Characteristics:

• Addresses Practical Issues

• Self-reflective Research

• Collaborative Research

• Based on Plan of Action

• Sharing of Reports
 Stages and Steps in action research
• Stages:

• I. identification of a process for addressing issues

• II. improving practice and practitioners

• III. participatory, emancipatory, or community research in which groups

assumed responsibility for their own emancipation and change

• Steps:

• Identification of a problem - problem to be studied is identified

• Locating Resources - to determine what others have learned about

solving a particular problem

• Data Collection - through experiencing, enquiring and examining

• Results - Interpretation, action implemented, and reflection

 Action research data
collection

Experiencing Enquiring Examining

• Participant • Informal Interview • Archival
observation • Structured Formal Documents
• Privileged, Interview • Journals
active • Questionnaires • Maps
observer
• Attitude Tests • Audio and Video
• Passive Tapes
• Standardized Tests
observer
• Artifacts
Overview of action research

Identify the Review related

Collect data
problem or area research literature

Organize, analyze Take action;

& interpret apply findings
 Planning Action Research
1. Write an area-of-focus
6. Describe the
statement.
negotiations that need
2. Define the variables. to happen.

3. Develop research 7. Develop a timeline.

questions.
8. Develop a statement of
4. Describe the resources.
intervention or
9. Develop data collection
innovation.
ideas.
5. Describe the action
10.Put action plan into
research group.
action.
 Validity of action research
• Pelto & Pelto (1978) : Validity - the degree to which scientific observations
actually measure or record what they purport to measure

• Assessing trustworthiness

• Assessing understanding

• Criteria of validity (Anderson, Herr & Nihlen):

• Democratic validity – require accurate representa-tion of multiple

perspectives of all subjects

• Outcome validity – requires that action emerging from a study lead to

successful resolution of problem being studied

• Process validity – requires that study be conduc-ted in dependable &

competent way

• Catalytic validity – requires that subjects are moved to take action

• Dialogic validity – requires application of a peer review process

 Strategies for meeting the criteria
• Talk Little, Listen a lot!

• Begin Writing Early!

• Let Readers “See” for Themselves

• Report Fully

• Be Candid

• Seek Feedback

• Write Accurately
In summary, qualitative research should
● Be systematic, rigorous and planned
● Be strategically conducted, yet flexible and
contextual
● Involve critical self-scrutiny (active reflexivity)
● Produce explanations
● Produce social explanations which are somewhat
generalizable
● Not be seen as a unified body