TOPIC 3 : ELECTRIC CURRENT AND DIRECT-CURRENT CIRCUITS

3.1 Electric Conduction

3.2 Ohm’s law and Resistivity

3.3 Variation of resistance with temperature

3.4 Electromotive force (emf), internal resistance and potential difference

3.5 Resistors in series and parallel

3.6 Kirchhoff’s Rules

3.7 Electrical energy and power

3.8 Potential divider

3.9 Potentiometer

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 Learning outcomes
At the end of this topic, the student should be able to:

3.1 Electrical Current

(a) Describe microscopic model of current

(b) Define electric current, .

(c) Use electric current,

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 Learning outcomes
3.2 Ohm’s Law and Resistivity

a) State and use Ohm’s law

b) Define and use resistivity,

3.3 Variation of resistance with temperature

(a) Explain the effect of temperature on electrical resistance in metals .

(b) Use

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 Learning outcomes

3.4 Electromotive force (emf), internal resistance and potential difference

(a) Define emf, and internal resistance, r of a battery.

(b) State factors that influence the internal resistance.

(c) Explain the relationship between emf of a battery and potential difference across the battery terminals

(d) Use terminal velocity, V= - Ir

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 Learning outcomes

3.5 Resistors in series and parallel

(a) Determine effective resistance of resistor in series and parallel.

3.6 Kirchhoff’s Rules

(b) State and apply Kirchhoff’s Rules

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 Learning outcomes
3.7 Electrical energy and power

(a) Use power, and . (Known as power loss)

(b) Use electrical energy,

3.8 Potential divider

(a) Explain the principle of potential divider

(b) Use equation of potential divider,

3.9 Potentiometer

(a) Explain principles of potentiometer and its applications.

(b) Use related equations for potentiometer,

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 3.1 ELECTRICAL CURRENT

Microscopic Model of Current

o Metal is good electric conductor. In metal (conductor), the charge carrier is free electron.

o If there no electric field inside a conductor, free electrons move randomly in all

directions.
   
E force, causes the free electrons to move F  qE
o If an electric field, is present, electric
slowly along the conductor (in a direction opposite that of ) at drift velocity,
E
vd

⃗
𝑭 =𝒒 ⃗
𝑬
– +
⃗
𝑭 =𝒒 ⃗
𝑬

o The drift of electrons in one specific direction producing current.

 Electric Current
o is defined as rate of flow of charge.

dQ where

I I : electric current

dt dQ : amount of charge

dt : time interval.

where
ne Q : charge

n : number of electrons

e : electron charge magnitude

o
base and scalar quantities.

o
S.I unit: ampere (A).

o
1 ampere of current is defined as one coulomb of charge passing through the

surface area in one second.

o Can be measured using an ammeter connected in series in a circuit.
o The flow of charge (current) persists for as long as there is a potential

difference.

Analogue to
o The direction of the current is opposite the direction of flow of electrons

Current, I

electron

flow _

Direction of electric current : Positive to negative terminal Direction of electron flows : Negative to

positive terminal
 3.2 OHM’S LAW AND RESISTIVITY

Ohm’s Law
o states that the potential difference (voltage) across a conductor, V is proportional to the

current, I flowing through it if its physical conditions and temperature are constant.

V (V) Materials that obey Ohm’s law (have

V I constant resistance over a wide range

of voltage) are called ohmic

V  IR
conductor.

Gradient, m = R
where

: potential difference

: current
0 I (A)
R: resistance
 Resistance

o is property which opposes or limits current flow

o is defined as a ratio of the potential difference, V across an electrical component to

the current, I passing through it.

o scalar quantity
o SI unit : ohm (Ω)
o symbol to indicate resistor in a circuit :

or
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 Resistivity
o a measure of a material’s ability to oppose the flow of an electric current

o is defined as the resistance of a unit cross-sectional area per unit length of the

material

𝑅𝐴
𝜌= where

𝑙 : resistivity

R : resistance

A : cross sectional area

l : length

o scalar quantity

o SI unit : ohm meter ( m)

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o Factors that affect the resistivity of the wire are the type of the material and temperature.

o A good electric conductors have a very low resistivities and good insulators have a very

high resistivities.

Material Resistivity,  ( m) at 20

Silver 1.59  108
Copper 1.68  108
Aluminum 2.82  108
Gold 2.44  108
Nichrome 150  108
Tungsten 5.60  108
Iron 1.0  107
Glass 10101014 15
 Factors that affect resistance, of wire

𝑙
𝝆𝒍
𝑹=
𝑨

1) its length,
2) its cross-sectional area,
3) resistivity of the material of which the conductor is made,
4) its temperature
 3.3 VARIATION OF RESISTANCE WITH TEMPERATURE

Effect of temperature on electrical resistance in metals

 The electrical resistance (or resistivity) in metal always increases with increasing

temperature.

 As the temperature increases, the atoms of the metal vibrate with greater amplitude.

 This causes the number of collisions between the free moving electrons and metal

atoms increase.

 The drift of free electrons through the metal becomes more difficult, hence resistance.

increases.
 Resistance and temperature

o Variation of resistance of a wire with temperature

How to find value of R at temperature T ?

𝑹(Ω)
¿
where

𝑹 R : initial resistance

Gradient =
Ro : final resistance

𝑹𝒐 α : temperature coefficient of resistivity (at temperature 20

T : final temperature

𝑻 (℃)
𝑻𝒐
: initial temperature

𝑻 18
 Temperature coefficient of resistivity

Temperature coefficient of resistivity () is the fractional increase in resistivity per

temperature rise from the resistivity value at some reference temperature.

–1
SI unit for α : or K

Various material have various values of .

3 –1
e.g : Silver   = 4.10  10 K

3 –1
Mercury   = 0.89  10 K
3.4 ELECTROMOTIVE FORCE (emf), INTERNAL RESISTANCE

AND POTENTIAL DIFFERENCE

emf,  and terminal potential difference, V

Consider a circuit consisting of a battery with internal
resistance, r that is connected by wires to an external resistor
R as shown.
R

I V

A
ε r B
‒ ‒

Battery (cell)
 * emf is not a force at all; it is a special type of potential difference.

 Electromotive force (emf),is defined as the energy

provided by the source (battery or cell) to each
unit charge that flows through the external and
internal resistances.


Terminal potential difference (voltage), V is defined as the work done in bringing a unit (test)

charge from the negative to the positive terminals of the battery through the external resistance

only.

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o When the current flows naturally from the battery, there is an internal drop in

potential difference (voltage) equal to

o Terminal voltagedue to internal resistance, of the battery.

o The terminal voltage,

where
ε : e.m.f.
V : terminal potential difference (voltage)
R : total external resistance
Ir : internal drop in potential difference OR Vr
r : internal resistance of a cell (battery)

o S.I unit for both and : volt (V).

 Terminal voltage,
where : current flow in the circuit
: total external resistance

Terminal voltage equals emf only if there is no The internal resistance of a voltage source affects the

current flowing. output voltage when a current flows.

𝑅=4.5 Ω 𝑅=4.5 Ω

𝜀=3 𝑉 𝜀=3 𝑉
Battery (cell) Battery (cell) 0.5A

A
𝑟 =1.5 Ω I A
𝑟 =1.5 Ω
B B
𝐼 =0 𝐴 𝜀
𝐼=
𝑅+𝑟
smaller the internal resistance r, the

greater the current the voltage source

V V
supplies to its load R

Voltmeter reads Voltmeter reads

 Internal resistance

 is defined as the resistance of the chemicals inside the

battery (cell) between the poles.

 The smaller the internal resistance for a given emf, the more
current and the more power the battery can supply.

 Internal resistance can behave in complex ways. As noted, increases

as a battery is depleted (ages) and electrolyte dries out.

 But internal resistance may also depend on the magnitude and

direction of the current through a voltage source, its
temperature and type of chemical material in the battery.
The internal resistance of rechargeable nickel-cadmium cells, for example,
depends on how many times and how deeply they have been depleted.
3.5 Resistors in series and parallel
Resistors in series Resistors in parallel

I  I1  I 2  I 3 I  I1  I 2  I 3
Total current is shared between
Same current flow through each resistor

V  V1 V 2 V 3 V theVresistors
1 V2 V3
Voltage across each pathway equal
Voltage shared in ratio
to total voltage
Effective resistance is given by: Effective resistance is given by:

𝟏 𝟏 𝟏 𝟏
𝑹 𝐞𝐟𝐟 =𝑹𝟏 + 𝑹𝟐+ …+ 𝑹𝒏 = + + …+ 25

𝑹𝐞𝐟𝐟 𝑹𝟏 𝑹 𝟐 𝑹𝒏
 3.6 KIRCHHOFF’S RULES

Kirchhoff’s First Rule (Junction rule)

 A statement of conservation of electric charge
 states that the sum of the currents entering any
junctions, in a circuit must equal the sum of the
currents leaving that junction, .

I  I
in out

∑ 𝐼𝑖𝑛=∑ 𝐼 𝑜𝑢𝑡
𝐼 + 𝐼 =𝐼 + 𝐼 + 𝐼
1 2 3 4 5

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Kirchhoff’s Second Rule (Loop rule)


Follows from the laws of conservation of energy


states that in any loop, the sum of emfs, is equal to the sum of the products

of current and resistance,

OR In any closed loop,

    IR
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 3.7 ELECTRICAL ENERGY AND POWER

Electrical device
Electrical energy
A B

I V I


Electric energy, of electrical device can be calculated using

where

(energy dissipated) E : electrical energy

I : current

 Scalar quantity V : voltage

R : resistance
 S.I unit : joule (J)
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t : time
 Power

 is defined as the rate of energy liberated in the

electrical device. (
 scalar quantity
 S.I unit : watt (W).
 Electrical power, is given:

where

(known as power loss) P : Power

I : current

V : voltage

R : resistance

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 3.8 POTENTIAL DIVIDER
 It is used to obtain any smaller portion of voltage from a
single voltage source,
 This is done by connecting two or more resistors in
series as shown.
V

I I
R1 R2

V1 V2
 Since the current flowing through each resistor is the
same, thus

𝑽 𝑽
𝑰= = ⋯ (𝟏)
𝑹𝐞𝐟𝐟 ( 𝑹 𝟏+ 𝑹𝟐) 30
 Therefore, the potential difference (voltage) across R1
is given by:

 Put (1) into (2) :

 Similarly,

 In general, if the potential divider has n resistors

connected in series, the smaller portion of
voltage across

𝑽 =
(
𝑹𝟏
OR apply Ratio𝑹= ratio
𝟏
𝟏 + 𝑹𝟐 + ⋯ + 𝑹 𝒏
𝑽
)
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 3.9 POTENTIOMETER
Potentiometer is an instrument used to measure an unknown voltage.

C B
Primary circuit
A
Vx
+ - G

secondary circuit
It consists of a long resistive wire

AB of length L (about 100 cm

long), a battery of known emf, V

One terminal of battery whose voltage is to be measured
and this forms the primary circuit.
is connected at point A and the other terminal at any point

on the resistive wire through a galvanometer G and

jockey. This forms the secondary circuit.

 Working principle of potentiometer


The jockey is tapped along the wire AB until at such a position, C on wire AB that there is no current

through the galvanometer (G = 0).

V (Driver cell -accumulator)

I 𝒍 𝑨𝑪 I
I C I
A B

Wire Vx G Jockey

Galvanometer
+ -
Unknown voltage

 As galvanometer reads zero  potentiometer in is balanced, length is known as balance length.

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 In this balance condition, unknown voltage, is equal to
the voltage across AC.

 From , for current and cross sectional area, wire are

constant, then

where is constant of proportionality

 Voltage drop along the wire is directly proportional to

the length of the wire(

 Thus we can use ratio = ratio to obtain the value of

unknown from a balance length .

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 Applications of potentiometer

1. measure an unknown emf of a cell.

2. compare the emfs of two cells.
3. measure the internal resistance of a cell.

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